Lesson Plans of the Native Americans: Native American Confederacy and U.S. Policy
Whispering Winds: A Shawnee Family’s Journey West
The late afternoon sun filtered through the canopy of the dense Ohio Valley forest, painting the ground with golden patches of light. Twelve-year-old Aiyana crouched by the edge of a slow-moving creek, her fingers tracing the ripples as she watched a cluster of minnows dart in the shallow water. The air smelled of damp earth and the faint sweetness of wildflowers, but Aiyana’s heart was heavy.
Her family, like many others in the Shawnee village, was preparing to leave their homeland. The settlers were coming closer—building cabins, chopping down trees, and planting their crops. Though the settlers hadn’t harmed the Shawnee directly, their presence was an undeniable intrusion, growing louder and closer with each passing moon.
Aiyana’s mother, Noya, stood nearby, quietly weaving a basket with her nimble hands. Her face, always calm and strong, betrayed the quiet sorrow that had gripped the village. The decision to leave had not come easily. For generations, the Shawnee had lived here, hunting the deer that roamed the forests, fishing in the creeks, and growing corn, beans, and squash in the clearings. But now, the balance had shifted.
Noya’s voice broke the silence. “Aiyana, it is time to return. Your father will want us to finish packing before nightfall.”
Aiyana nodded but lingered a moment longer, dipping her hand into the cool water. This creek, this forest—these were the only home she had ever known. The thought of leaving made her throat tighten, but she said nothing. She was old enough to understand the importance of unity and obedience.
Back at the village, the atmosphere was subdued. Families worked quietly, bundling their belongings and preparing for the journey west. Aiyana’s father, Takoda, stood with the other men near the council fire. Their voices were low but firm, discussing the path they would take and how they would remain together as a people.
The decision to leave had come after months of tension. The Shawnee had joined the Western Confederacy, allying with other tribes like the Miami, Wyandot, and Potawatomi to resist the encroaching settlers. Takoda had traveled to council meetings with other tribal leaders, listening to the calls for unity and coordinated defense. But the alliance had faltered under the weight of its challenges. The settlers kept coming, and the Shawnee were left to choose between risking conflict or finding another place to live.
“It is not a surrender,” Takoda had explained to Aiyana one evening as they sat by the fire. “It is wisdom. A warrior knows when to fight and when to seek another path. Our people need peace.”
Aiyana had nodded, though the words felt hollow. She wasn’t sure if she admired her father’s resolve or resented it. Would moving away truly bring peace? Or would the settlers simply follow?
The next morning, the Shawnee began their journey. Aiyana walked beside her parents, carrying a bundle of blankets tied with twine. Around her, children cried softly, clutching wooden toys or scraps of cloth, while elders leaned on walking sticks, their eyes fixed on the horizon. The village, once filled with laughter and song, was now silent save for the crunch of footsteps on fallen leaves.
As they walked, Aiyana thought about the stories her grandmother used to tell. Stories of the Shawnee’s resilience, of how they had once been scattered by war and had come together again, stronger than before. She clung to those stories now, letting them weave a thread of hope through her sadness.
After several days of travel, the group reached a new clearing far from the encroaching settlements. The forest was quieter here, the air heavy with the scent of pine. The elders declared it a suitable place to settle, and the families began rebuilding their homes. But the spirit of the community felt different, weighed down by the knowledge that this was not their first displacement—and it might not be their last.
One evening, as the new village began to take shape, Aiyana sat by the fire with her parents. Her father was carving a bow, his hands steady despite the turmoil around them. Her mother hummed a soft melody, weaving another basket.
“Do you think we’ll be safe here?” Aiyana asked hesitantly.
Takoda paused his work, meeting her gaze. “For now, yes. But we must always be prepared. That is why we joined the confederacy, why we stand with our brothers and sisters from other tribes. Together, we are stronger.”
“But the confederacy didn’t stop them,” Aiyana said quietly, her voice trembling with frustration.
Her father sighed, setting the bow aside. “No, it didn’t. But resistance is not just about stopping someone. It is about holding on to who we are. As long as we remain Shawnee, as long as we keep our language, our stories, our way of life—they have not won.”
Noya placed a comforting hand on Aiyana’s shoulder. “And you, my little one, are part of that. Wherever we go, you carry the heart of our people with you.”
In the months that followed, the Shawnee adjusted to their new home. Aiyana learned to find beauty in the unfamiliar forest, to recognize the songs of new birds and the patterns of the stars overhead. But she never forgot the creek where she had spent her childhood, or the fields where her grandparents once planted corn.
Though the settlers continued to push west, Aiyana held on to her father’s words. The Shawnee might move, they might adapt, but they would never be erased. Their spirit, like the whispering winds in the trees, would endure.
Major Native American Alliances Before the American Revolution
Before the American Revolution, the indigenous peoples of North America formed complex alliances and confederacies to navigate the challenges posed by colonial expansion and intertribal relations. These alliances not only determined the balance of power among Native American groups but also played a crucial role in interactions with European settlers. Among the most notable were the Iroquois Confederacy, the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Shawnee Confederacy, and the Cherokee alliance networks.
The Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee)
The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee, was one of the most powerful Native alliances in pre-Revolutionary America. It was composed of six nations:
Mohawk
Oneida
Onondaga
Cayuga
Seneca
Tuscarora (joined later)
These tribes formed the confederacy under the Great Law of Peace, a constitution that emphasized unity, shared governance, and collective defense. The Iroquois exerted significant influence over vast territories in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. Their alliances often extended to other tribes, either as military allies or subordinates within their dominion.
The Iroquois had a complex relationship with European powers, notably aligning with the British during the French and Indian War (1754–1763). Internally, they maintained control over numerous smaller tribes in their orbit, demanding tribute and military support when needed.
The Wabanaki Confederacy
The Wabanaki Confederacy was an alliance of Algonquian-speaking tribes in the northeastern United States and Canada, including:
Mi'kmaq
Maliseet
Penobscot
Passamaquoddy
Abenaki
This confederacy formed as a defense against Iroquois aggression and to strengthen their position in dealings with European colonists, particularly the French. The Wabanaki allied closely with the French during conflicts such as King Philip's War and the French and Indian War, sharing a common interest in curbing British expansion.
Within the confederacy, the member tribes retained autonomy but collaborated on matters of mutual interest, such as territorial defense and trade. Their alliance with the French provided them access to firearms and other European goods, which they used to resist English settlers effectively.
Shawnee Confederacy
The Shawnee Confederacy was a loosely organized alliance of Shawnee bands spread across the Ohio Valley. While the Shawnee lacked the centralized governance of the Iroquois, they maintained close ties with other tribes in the region, including:
Delaware (Lenape)
Mingo
Miami
Wyandot
The Shawnee Confederacy was particularly significant in the 18th century as they resisted British and American encroachments on their territory. They often acted as a bridge between southern tribes like the Cherokee and northern groups like the Iroquois, fostering regional coalitions against colonial powers.
Cherokee and Southeastern Alliances
The Cherokee, one of the largest and most influential tribes in the southeastern United States, maintained a complex network of alliances with neighboring tribes, including:
Chickasaw
Choctaw
Creek (Muscogee)
Though these tribes did not form a formal confederacy, they cooperated in matters of mutual interest, such as resisting incursions by the British or French. The Cherokee themselves were divided into multiple factions, some of which allied with the British while others leaned toward the French or remained neutral in conflicts like the French and Indian War.
Intertribal Dynamics
Native alliances often shifted based on immediate threats and opportunities. The Iroquois Confederacy, for instance, exercised dominance over smaller tribes, requiring them to contribute warriors to military campaigns. Conversely, alliances like the Wabanaki were more egalitarian, focusing on collective defense.
European involvement further complicated these alliances. Colonists often exploited existing rivalries, offering weapons, trade goods, or promises of land to gain Native support. However, many tribes recognized the dangers of European expansion and attempted to form pan-tribal coalitions, though these efforts were often undermined by internal divisions and the overwhelming power of colonial forces.
Legacy of Native Alliances
The alliances formed before the American Revolution laid the groundwork for Native resistance during the conflict itself. The Iroquois Confederacy split, with some nations siding with the British and others with the Americans. Similarly, the Cherokee and Shawnee found themselves drawn into the war, often in defense of their own territories rather than in support of colonial causes.
These alliances highlight the political acumen and resilience of Native American tribes, who navigated an era of profound upheaval with strategic alliances and adaptability. Understanding these networks is essential to appreciating the complexities of pre-Revolutionary America and the enduring legacy of indigenous diplomacy and resistance.
Native American Alliances After the American Revolution
Following the American Revolution, Native American tribes faced an increasingly aggressive push from the newly formed United States to expand westward. The Treaty of Paris (1783) had ceded vast Native-held territories to the U.S. without consultation or consent, intensifying conflicts as settlers moved into tribal lands. In response, several Native American alliances formed to resist U.S. expansion and protect their territories, cultures, and sovereignty. Among these were the Western Confederacy, Tecumseh's Confederacy, and smaller regional coalitions.
The Western Confederacy (1785–1795)
One of the earliest and most significant Native alliances formed after the American Revolution was the Western Confederacy, a coalition of tribes from the Great Lakes region and the Ohio Valley. This confederacy emerged as a direct response to American encroachments on Native lands and the failure of the U.S. government to honor previous treaties.
Member Tribes:
Shawnee
Miami
Delaware (Lenape)
Wyandot
Ottawa
Ojibwe
Potawatomi
Kickapoo
Sauk and Fox
Goals:
The Western Confederacy sought to create a united front against American settlers and military forces, advocating for a return to the Ohio River as the boundary between Native and American territories. They viewed unity as essential to resisting the U.S. government's policy of westward expansion.
Key Events:
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784): U.S. attempts to claim Native lands through treaties provoked outrage among tribes excluded from negotiations. This galvanized efforts to form the confederacy.
Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794): The Western Confederacy suffered a decisive defeat to General Anthony Wayne's forces, leading to the Treaty of Greenville (1795), which ceded much of Ohio to the United States. Despite the loss, the alliance demonstrated the power of intertribal unity.
Tecumseh’s Confederacy (1808–1813)
One of the most well-known Native American alliances formed in the post-Revolutionary period was Tecumseh’s Confederacy, led by the Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (the Prophet). This pan-tribal movement aimed to resist U.S. expansion and create a unified Native nation.
Member Tribes:
Tecumseh’s Confederacy extended beyond the Ohio Valley and included tribes from the Great Lakes, the Southeast, and parts of Canada, such as:
Shawnee
Potawatomi
Miami
Kickapoo
Delaware (Lenape)
Ojibwe
Sauk and Fox
Creek (Muscogee)
Goals:
Tecumseh envisioned a confederacy where all tribes shared a common goal of rejecting U.S. land treaties, which he argued were illegitimate unless all tribes consented. The movement also sought to revitalize traditional Native cultures, which Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa believed had been undermined by European influence.
Key Events:
Battle of Tippecanoe (1811): The U.S. Army, led by Governor William Henry Harrison, attacked Prophetstown, the confederacy’s headquarters. Though a tactical setback, this battle further united tribes against U.S. aggression.
War of 1812: Tecumseh allied with the British, hoping to halt U.S. expansion. His leadership was instrumental in early victories, but his death at the Battle of the Thames (1813) led to the collapse of the confederacy.
Regional Alliances and Resistance Movements
Beyond these large confederacies, smaller regional alliances also formed during this period, reflecting the diversity of Native resistance:
The Creek Red Stick Movement (1813–1814):
A faction of the Creek (Muscogee) nation, known as the Red Sticks, opposed U.S. expansion and assimilation efforts. They allied with Tecumseh’s Confederacy and engaged in the Creek War, which ended with their defeat at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
The Seminole Resistance:
In Florida, the Seminoles formed alliances with escaped African American slaves and other tribes to resist U.S. forces in the Seminole Wars (1816–1858). These alliances blurred racial and cultural lines, creating a unique coalition of resistance.
The Black Hawk War (1832):
Led by Sauk leader Black Hawk, this alliance of Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo tribes attempted to reclaim lands in Illinois and Wisconsin. Although ultimately unsuccessful, the war highlighted ongoing Native resistance to U.S. policies.
Challenges to Unity
While these alliances demonstrated remarkable organizational and diplomatic skills, they faced significant challenges:
Cultural Differences: Diverse languages, traditions, and political structures often complicated unity.
U.S. Divide-and-Conquer Tactics: The U.S. government exploited intertribal rivalries and offered individual tribes favorable treaties to undermine collective resistance.
European Influence: Alliances with European powers, such as the British and Spanish, provided resources but often subordinated Native goals to European interests.
Legacy of Post-Revolutionary Alliances
The Native alliances formed after the American Revolution marked a critical period of resistance in the face of overwhelming challenges. While these coalitions ultimately failed to stop U.S. expansion, they demonstrated the resilience and adaptability of Native peoples. Their efforts inspired later resistance movements and remain a testament to the enduring struggle for sovereignty and self-determination.
These alliances also influenced U.S. military strategies and policies, shaping the nation's westward trajectory. The legacy of figures like Tecumseh continues to symbolize the importance of unity and the fight for indigenous rights, both in the historical record and in contemporary movements advocating for Native sovereignty and cultural preservation.
Early U.S. Policies Toward Native Americans and Westward Expansion
From the establishment of the United States, the federal government’s policies toward Native Americans and westward expansion reflected the nation’s aspirations for growth and its complex, often conflicting, attitudes toward Native sovereignty. Initially guided by treaties and efforts to coexist, policies gradually shifted toward land acquisition and forced removal as settlers pushed westward.
Key U.S. Policies Toward Native Americans and Westward Expansion
1. The Treaty System (1780s–1820s)
Early policies involved treaties that defined Native land cessions and boundaries. These agreements often promised Native Americans compensation, trade goods, and protection, though the U.S. government rarely upheld its promises.
Significant Treaties:
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784): First treaty with Native Americans under the Articles of Confederation.
Treaty of Greenville (1795): Following Native defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, this treaty ceded much of present-day Ohio to the U.S.
Treaty of St. Louis (1816–1821): Series of treaties with tribes in the Mississippi River Valley to secure land for settlers.
2. “Civilization” Policy (1790s–1820s)
Under presidents like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, the U.S. government promoted the assimilation of Native Americans into European-American society. The aim was to transform Native societies into agrarian communities that mirrored settler culture.
Key Features:
Encouraged adoption of Western-style farming and education.
Promoted Christianity through missionary activities.
Advocated for peaceful coexistence but laid the groundwork for land dispossession.
3. Indian Removal Policy (1820s–1840s)
As settlers moved westward, the U.S. abandoned assimilation in favor of removal. This marked a turning point in relations with Native Americans, as entire tribes were forcibly relocated.
Indian Removal Act (1830):
Signed by Andrew Jackson, this act authorized the federal government to relocate tribes from the southeastern U.S. to lands west of the Mississippi River.
Resulted in the Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Native Americans from tribes like the Cherokee, Creek, and Choctaw were forcibly removed.
4. Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny (1840s)
The ideology of Manifest Destiny drove U.S. policies during this period, emphasizing the nation’s right to expand across the continent. This intensified conflicts with Native tribes and Mexican territories.
Key Policies:
Preemption Act (1841): Allowed settlers to claim public land, encouraging westward migration.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848): Ended the Mexican-American War and added vast western territories to the U.S., intensifying the displacement of Native Americans in the region.
Timeline of U.S. Policies Toward Native Americans and Westward Expansion
Year | Policy/Event | Description | End/Change |
1784 | Treaty of Fort Stanwix | First treaty under the U.S. established boundaries with Iroquois tribes. | Replaced by later treaties. |
1785 | Land Ordinance of 1785 | Established guidelines for surveying and selling western lands, paving the way for settlement. | Continued influence; evolved into later land policies. |
1790s | Civilization Policy | Promoted assimilation of Native Americans into settler culture. | Phased out in favor of removal policies in the 1820s. |
1795 | Treaty of Greenville | Ceded much of Ohio after Native defeat in the Battle of Fallen Timbers. | Set precedent for forced cessions of Native land. |
1803 | Louisiana Purchase | Doubled U.S. territory; raised questions about Native land rights in the acquired area. | Continued U.S. expansion westward. |
1824 | Bureau of Indian Affairs Established | Created to manage Native relations and oversee treaties and removals. | Evolved into modern Bureau of Indian Affairs. |
1830 | Indian Removal Act | Authorized the forced relocation of Native Americans to the west. | Implementation ended by the 1840s but its impact was enduring. |
1831–1838 | Trail of Tears | Forced removal of tribes like the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole. | Ended with the relocation of southeastern tribes. |
1841 | Preemption Act | Allowed settlers to purchase public land at low prices, fueling westward migration. | Superseded by the Homestead Act (1862). |
1845 | Annexation of Texas | Annexed Texas, leading to tensions with Mexico and Native displacement in the Southwest. | Consolidated by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). |
1848 | Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo | Added California, Arizona, New Mexico, and more to U.S. territory. | Opened new lands for settlement, displacing Native tribes. |
How Often Did Policies Change?
Major policy shifts occurred roughly every decade in the early United States, often in response to significant events:
Treaty Era (1780s–1820s):
Policies emphasized treaties, often as temporary measures to secure land for settlers while avoiding conflict.
Assimilation and Civilization Era (1790s–1820s):
Focused on integrating Native Americans into American society but began phasing out as settlers demanded more land.
Indian Removal Era (1830s–1840s):
Marked by the systematic removal of Native Americans to clear the way for settlers in the South and Midwest.
Manifest Destiny Era (1840s):
Expansion became a national imperative, sidelining Native rights entirely as the U.S. pursued territorial growth.
Policies toward Native Americans and westward expansion in the early United States evolved rapidly, driven by the nation’s priorities for growth and territorial consolidation. While treaties and assimilation characterized early efforts, the shift to forced removal and Manifest Destiny in the 19th century underscored the U.S. government’s increasing disregard for Native sovereignty. These policies not only displaced thousands of Native Americans but also set the stage for ongoing struggles over land, culture, and autonomy.
Early U.S. Presidential Policies Toward Native Americans (1789–1850)
The early policies of U.S. presidents toward Native Americans reflected the nation's conflicting goals of westward expansion, land acquisition, and attempts to assimilate Native peoples into American society. These policies ranged from George Washington's "civilization" efforts to Andrew Jackson's infamous Indian Removal Act, highlighting the evolving and often contentious relationship between Native Americans and the U.S. government. Below is a summary of key presidential policies and approaches toward Native Americans up to 1850.
George Washington (1789–1797): The “Civilization” Policy
George Washington's administration initiated the first formal policy toward Native Americans, known as the "civilization" policy. This approach sought to assimilate Native Americans into American society by encouraging them to adopt European-American agricultural practices, Christianity, and Western-style education.
Key Goals:
Transform Native societies from hunters and gatherers into agrarian communities.
Promote intermarriage and Christianization to "civilize" Native peoples.
Avoid military conflict when possible while securing land for settlers.
Washington also signed the Treaty of Greenville (1795), which forced Native tribes in the Ohio Valley to cede large tracts of land after their defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
John Adams (1797–1801): Continuity Without Innovation
John Adams largely continued Washington's approach without introducing significant new policies. His administration upheld existing treaties and focused on maintaining peace along the frontier. However, tensions between settlers and Native Americans persisted, as land hunger among settlers grew.
Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809): Expansion and Assimilation
Thomas Jefferson's policies marked a shift toward territorial expansion. While Jefferson initially supported assimilation and education for Native Americans, his vision of an "agrarian empire" for American settlers ultimately prioritized land acquisition.
Key Policies:
Advocated for voluntary removal of Native Americans west of the Mississippi River.
Encouraged Native tribes to sell their lands to the U.S. government and relocate to areas deemed less desirable by settlers.
Expanded U.S. territory through the Louisiana Purchase (1803), intensifying pressure on Native lands.
Jefferson saw Native removal as a means to avoid violent conflict, though his policies laid the groundwork for future forced removals.
James Madison (1809–1817): Conflict and Displacement
James Madison's presidency was marked by increasing violence between settlers and Native Americans. The War of 1812 further exacerbated these tensions, as Native tribes, led by leaders like Tecumseh, allied with the British to resist American expansion.
Key Events:
The defeat of Tecumseh’s Confederacy at the Battle of Tippecanoe (1811) and during the War of 1812 weakened Native resistance in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes regions.
Madison continued policies encouraging Native land cessions.
James Monroe (1817–1825): The Era of Indian Removal Begins
James Monroe’s administration set the stage for the formalized policy of Indian removal under his successors.
Key Policies:
Advocated for the relocation of Native Americans west of the Mississippi River to "free up" eastern lands for settlers.
Suggested creating a distinct territory for Native Americans, foreshadowing the establishment of "Indian Territory."
Monroe’s policies reflected the growing sentiment that Native Americans and settlers could not coexist peacefully.
John Quincy Adams (1825–1829): Advocacy for Negotiation
John Quincy Adams sought to address Native American issues through negotiation rather than force. However, he faced significant pressure from southern states to acquire Native lands.
Key Events:
Adams negotiated treaties that resulted in additional land cessions but avoided large-scale forced removals during his presidency.
His administration worked to balance expansion with adherence to treaty obligations, though these efforts were often undermined by local and state actions.
Andrew Jackson (1829–1837): The Indian Removal Act
Andrew Jackson’s presidency marked a turning point in U.S. policies toward Native Americans. His administration prioritized the removal of Native tribes from their ancestral lands to make way for settlers.
Key Policies:
Signed the Indian Removal Act (1830), authorizing the forced relocation of Native Americans to lands west of the Mississippi River.
Oversaw the Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole people were forcibly relocated, resulting in widespread suffering and death.
Jackson viewed Native Americans as obstacles to progress, justifying removal as a means to "protect" them from settler violence.
Martin Van Buren (1837–1841): Enforcement of Indian Removal
Martin Van Buren continued Jackson’s Indian removal policies, most notably overseeing the implementation of the Trail of Tears.
Key Events:
Enforced the removal of the Cherokee Nation in 1838, one of the most tragic episodes of forced relocation.
William Henry Harrison (1841) and John Tyler (1841–1845): A Quiet Period
William Henry Harrison, who served only one month, had little impact on Native policy. However, his earlier military career, including his role at the Battle of Tippecanoe, had significantly shaped U.S.-Native relations.
John Tyler’s administration focused more on territorial expansion, including the annexation of Texas, but made no significant changes to Native policy. Native displacement continued as settlers pushed further west.
James K. Polk (1845–1849): Manifest Destiny
James K. Polk’s presidency embraced the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, fueling westward expansion at the expense of Native American lands.
Key Policies:
Promoted rapid westward settlement through territorial acquisitions like the Oregon Treaty (1846) and the conclusion of the Mexican-American War (1848).
Expansion intensified conflicts with Plains tribes as settlers moved into their territories.
The policies of early U.S. presidents toward Native Americans evolved from Washington's attempts at assimilation to Jackson's aggressive removal strategies. By 1850, the pattern was clear: the expansion of the United States came at a devastating cost to Native peoples, who were displaced, marginalized, and often subjected to immense suffering. These policies laid the foundation for continued Native resistance and the long struggle for sovereignty and cultural preservation.
The Westward Expansion for American Colonists: A Transformative Era
Westward expansion in the United States was a defining period that shaped the nation's identity, economy, and territorial boundaries. Driven by a desire for land, resources, and opportunities, American colonists and settlers moved westward in waves beginning in the late 18th century. This movement was fueled by government policies, technological advancements, and a belief in Manifest Destiny—the idea that Americans were destined to expand across the continent.
While this expansion brought prosperity and growth for many settlers, it also led to significant displacement and suffering for Native American populations. The period highlighted the ambitions and contradictions of the young United States as it pursued growth at all costs.
Motivations for Westward Expansion
1. Land and Economic Opportunity
For many American colonists, the West represented freedom and prosperity. The fertile lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains promised opportunities for farming, hunting, and trading. In an agrarian society, owning land was equated with independence and social status.
2. Population Growth
By the late 18th century, the population of the United States was rapidly increasing. The original 13 colonies were becoming crowded, prompting families and individuals to seek new frontiers.
3. Government Policies
The federal government actively encouraged westward expansion through legislation and treaties:
Northwest Ordinance (1787): Established a framework for settling and governing new territories.
Louisiana Purchase (1803): Doubled the size of the United States, opening vast lands for settlement.
Homestead Acts (later in the 19th century): Granted land to settlers at little or no cost.
4. Ideology of Manifest Destiny
Although the term "Manifest Destiny" wasn’t coined until the 1840s, the idea that Americans were divinely ordained to expand across the continent influenced early settlers. This belief justified not only territorial acquisition but also the displacement of Native peoples.
The Journey West
1. Early Migration Routes
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, settlers used trails like the Great Valley Road, the Wilderness Road (blazed by Daniel Boone), and river systems to penetrate the frontier. These routes led settlers into territories such as Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio.
2. Challenges of Frontier Life
Life in the West was fraught with challenges. Settlers faced harsh weather, disease, isolation, and conflicts with Native American tribes. Despite these hardships, many persevered, carving out farms, towns, and trading posts.
Impact on Native Americans
Westward expansion had devastating effects on Native American populations. As settlers moved west, they encroached on Native lands, often backed by treaties that were negotiated under duress or ignored entirely.
1. Displacement and Conflict
Native tribes were frequently forced to cede their lands through treaties like the Treaty of Greenville (1795) and the Adams-Onís Treaty (1819).
Conflicts such as the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) and the Creek War (1813–1814) arose as Native peoples resisted encroachment.
2. Cultural Impact
The loss of land disrupted traditional ways of life, forcing many tribes to adapt or relocate. Efforts to assimilate Native Americans into European-American society, such as the U.S. government's "civilization" policy, further eroded Native cultural practices.
Key Milestones of Westward Expansion
1. Northwest Ordinance (1787)
This landmark legislation provided a blueprint for settling and governing the Northwest Territory. It guaranteed rights like freedom of religion and prohibited slavery in the region, setting a precedent for the expansion of American values.
2. Louisiana Purchase (1803)
The purchase of land from France for $15 million doubled the size of the United States. This acquisition opened the Mississippi River and the vast Great Plains to American settlement.
3. Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806)
Commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson, this expedition explored the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and mapped routes to the Pacific, sparking interest in western lands.
4. War of 1812
This conflict solidified American control over territories in the Northwest and weakened Native resistance, as tribes that allied with the British suffered defeats.
5. Missouri Compromise (1820)
As settlers moved west, the question of slavery's expansion arose. The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining a balance between free and slave states while limiting slavery in certain territories.
Consequences of Westward Expansion
1. Economic Growth
Expansion supported the U.S. economy, particularly through agriculture. New states like Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois became vital to the nation’s agricultural output.
Trade routes such as the Mississippi River facilitated commerce and connected frontier settlements to global markets.
2. Political Challenges
Westward expansion intensified debates over slavery, with each new territory raising the question of whether it would allow the practice.
The rapid addition of territories strained relations between states and the federal government, particularly regarding governance and representation.
3. Environmental and Social Change
Settlers transformed the landscape, clearing forests, plowing prairies, and building infrastructure.
Indigenous communities were systematically displaced, leading to cultural loss and forced migrations like the Trail of Tears in the 1830s.
Legacy of Westward Expansion
Westward expansion from 1787 to 1830 established the United States as a continental power and laid the foundation for its future growth. It demonstrated the resilience and ambition of settlers but also revealed the cost of that ambition—Native displacement, environmental change, and sectional tensions over slavery.
The story of westward expansion is both one of opportunity and tragedy. It represents the aspirations of a growing nation while underscoring the ethical dilemmas and conflicts that came with it. Understanding this era is crucial to comprehending the complexities of American history and its enduring impact on the country’s identity.
Native Participation in Early Conflicts: War of 1812 and the Black Hawk War
Native American involvement in early American conflicts was shaped by their struggle to defend their lands, sovereignty, and way of life against an expanding United States. Key conflicts such as the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk War highlighted Native resistance and the alliances they formed, often with foreign powers or other tribes, to counter settler encroachment. These wars revealed the complexities of Native diplomacy, military strategy, and the consequences of their participation in broader geopolitical struggles.
Native Participation in the War of 1812 (1812–1815)
The War of 1812 was a pivotal conflict for Native Americans. It provided an opportunity to resist U.S. expansion by allying with the British, who promised to support Native sovereignty. However, the war also resulted in devastating losses for many tribes and marked a turning point in their resistance against the United States.
Key Native Leaders and Tribes
Tecumseh’s Confederacy: Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader, played a central role in uniting various tribes, including the Shawnee, Miami, Delaware (Lenape), and others, into a confederacy to resist American expansion.
The Creek Nation: The Creek War (1813–1814), a subset of the War of 1812, saw a division within the Creek Nation between the "Red Sticks," who resisted U.S. influence, and those who allied with the Americans.
Motivations for Involvement
Native tribes allied with the British to counter U.S. territorial ambitions and protect their lands.
British promises of military support and recognition of Native sovereignty offered hope for resisting U.S. expansion.
Major Contributions
Native warriors played critical roles in battles such as:
Battle of Tippecanoe (1811): Preceding the war, Tecumseh’s forces clashed with U.S. troops, signaling rising tensions.
Siege of Fort Detroit (1812): Tecumseh’s confederacy contributed to a significant British victory, boosting Native morale.
Battle of Thames (1813): Tecumseh was killed, dealing a severe blow to the confederacy and Native resistance.
Consequences for Native Tribes
The war ended with the Treaty of Ghent (1814), which restored pre-war boundaries between the U.S. and Britain but ignored Native interests.
Without British support, Native resistance weakened, and tribes were forced to cede more land to the U.S.
Tecumseh’s death marked the collapse of the pan-tribal confederacy, leaving individual tribes vulnerable to U.S. expansion.
Native Participation in the Black Hawk War (1832)
The Black Hawk War was a brief but significant conflict centered on the resistance of the Sauk and Fox tribes, led by Black Hawk, against U.S. expansion into their ancestral lands. It epitomized the desperation of Native tribes to retain their territories in the face of overwhelming U.S. forces.
Background
The Sauk and Fox tribes, led by Black Hawk, sought to reclaim lands in Illinois ceded under the Treaty of St. Louis (1804), which Black Hawk claimed was invalid.
Settlers' encroachment into these lands and the tribes’ poor treatment in the Iowa Territory heightened tensions.
Key Events
Crossing of the Mississippi (April 1832): Black Hawk and his followers returned to Illinois to resettle lands, prompting panic among settlers.
Skirmishes and Battles:
The conflict involved a series of small skirmishes, with Native forces using guerrilla tactics to evade U.S. troops.
Battle of Bad Axe (August 1832): Marked the war's end, as U.S. forces massacred Black Hawk’s followers, including women and children, during their retreat.
Consequences
Black Hawk was captured and imprisoned, becoming a symbol of resistance.
The war ended organized Native resistance in the Old Northwest.
The U.S. government forced the Sauk and Fox tribes to cede additional lands, accelerating westward expansion.
Common Themes in Native Participation
1. Alliances and Divisions
Native tribes often allied with external powers, such as the British during the War of 1812, as a strategy to counter U.S. expansion.
Internal divisions, such as those seen in the Creek War and the Sauk-Fox relationship, weakened Native resistance efforts.
2. Defense of Sovereignty
Both conflicts highlight Native attempts to assert sovereignty and retain their lands, often framed as defensive wars against encroachment.
3. Asymmetric Warfare
Native forces relied on guerrilla tactics, leveraging their knowledge of the terrain to counter the superior numbers and firepower of U.S. forces.
Legacy of Native Participation in Early Conflicts
The participation of Native Americans in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk War underscores their determination to protect their lands and way of life despite overwhelming odds. While these efforts ultimately failed to halt U.S. expansion, they left a lasting legacy of resistance and highlighted the profound impact of U.S. policies on Native sovereignty.
These conflicts also mark turning points in U.S.-Native relations, transitioning from contested territories to policies of forced removal and reservation confinement. The stories of leaders like Tecumseh and Black Hawk continue to serve as powerful symbols of resilience and the struggle for justice in the face of adversity.
Key Native Leaders During Westward Expansion: Lives and Legacies
Westward expansion in the United States was a tumultuous period for Native American tribes, marked by displacement, resistance, and cultural upheaval. Amid this adversity, many Native leaders—both male and female—emerged as defenders of their people, striving to protect their lands, sovereignty, and traditions. These leaders played crucial roles in resisting American encroachment, forging alliances, and preserving Native identity in the face of overwhelming odds.
Below is a look at some of the most important Native leaders during the era of westward expansion, highlighting their contributions and enduring legacies.
Male Leaders
1. Tecumseh (1768–1813)
Tribe: Shawnee
Role: Warrior, diplomat, and leader of a pan-tribal confederacy
Significance:
Tecumseh is one of the most renowned Native leaders of the early 19th century. A visionary diplomat and strategist, he sought to unite tribes across the Ohio Valley and beyond into a confederacy to resist U.S. expansion. Tecumseh believed that Native lands were collectively owned by all tribes, and no single tribe had the right to sell land without unanimous consent.
Key Achievements:
Built a large pan-tribal alliance, including the Shawnee, Miami, Potawatomi, and more.
Allied with the British during the War of 1812 to counter U.S. territorial ambitions.
Legacy: Tecumseh’s death at the Battle of the Thames (1813) marked the collapse of his confederacy, but his efforts remain a symbol of Native unity and resistance.
2. Black Hawk (1767–1838)
Tribe: Sauk
Role: Leader of the Sauk resistance in the Black Hawk War (1832)
Significance:
Black Hawk led a faction of Sauk and Fox tribes in an effort to reclaim their ancestral lands in Illinois, which had been ceded under the controversial Treaty of St. Louis (1804). Rejecting the legitimacy of the treaty, Black Hawk attempted to resettle his people, sparking conflict with U.S. forces.
Key Achievements:
Organized resistance during the Black Hawk War.
His leadership highlighted Native grievances over unjust treaties and settler encroachment.
Legacy: Despite his eventual defeat and imprisonment, Black Hawk’s autobiography became an important record of Native perspectives during this era.
3. Red Eagle (William Weatherford) (1780–1824)
Tribe: Creek (Muscogee)
Role: Leader during the Creek War (1813–1814)
Significance:
Red Eagle was a prominent leader of the "Red Sticks," a faction of the Creek Nation that sought to resist U.S. influence and preserve traditional Creek ways. He led his forces in major battles against U.S. troops, including the Battle of Fort Mims and the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
Key Achievements:
Unified Creek factions to resist American settlers.
Negotiated peace with Andrew Jackson after the Red Sticks’ defeat.
Legacy: Though ultimately forced to cede Creek lands, Red Eagle remains a symbol of resistance and diplomacy.
4. Osceola (1804–1838)
Tribe: Seminole
Role: Leader during the Second Seminole War (1835–1842)
Significance:
Osceola became a symbol of resistance against U.S. efforts to remove the Seminole people from Florida under the Indian Removal Act. He fiercely opposed relocation to Indian Territory and used guerrilla tactics to fight U.S. forces.
Key Achievements:
Orchestrated ambushes and led successful raids during the Second Seminole War.
Unified diverse factions of Seminoles and African Americans in Florida (escaped slaves and freedmen).
Legacy: Despite being captured under a flag of truce and dying in captivity, Osceola remains an enduring symbol of Native resistance.
5. Little Turtle (1752–1812)
Tribe: Miami
Role: War chief of the Miami Confederacy
Significance:
Little Turtle led one of the most successful Native resistance campaigns against U.S. forces in the Northwest Territory during the 1790s. His leadership in the Northwest Indian War made him a formidable figure.
Key Achievements:
Defeated U.S. forces at the Battle of the Wabash (1791), also known as St. Clair's Defeat, inflicting the greatest loss on the U.S. Army by Native forces.
Advocated for peace after defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794).
Legacy: Little Turtle’s military successes delayed U.S. expansion in the Ohio Valley and highlighted the strength of Native alliances.
Female Leaders
1. Nanyehi (Nancy Ward) (1738–1822)
Tribe: Cherokee
Role: Beloved Woman (peace chief) of the Cherokee Nation
Significance:
Nancy Ward was a respected Cherokee leader who played a critical role in advocating for peace and diplomacy between the Cherokee and American settlers. As a “Beloved Woman,” she held significant influence in tribal decisions and used her position to mediate conflicts.
Key Achievements:
Advocated for coexistence and helped negotiate treaties with settlers.
Introduced agricultural innovations to Cherokee communities, strengthening their resilience.
Legacy: Nancy Ward’s efforts to protect her people while seeking peaceful solutions highlight the role of women in Native leadership and diplomacy.
2. Weetamoo (c. 1635–1676) (Precursor to Expansion Era, but influential)
Tribe: Pocasset (Wampanoag Confederacy)
Role: Sachem (leader)
Significance:
Though Weetamoo lived before the formal westward expansion, her leadership during King Philip’s War (1675–1676) set a precedent for female leaders resisting colonial encroachment. She was a key figure in Native resistance to English settlers in New England.
Key Achievements:
Commanded loyalty from multiple tribes within the Wampanoag Confederacy.
Played a critical role in maintaining Native unity during King Philip’s War.
Legacy: Weetamoo’s leadership paved the way for future generations of women leaders in Native communities.
3. Lozen (c. 1840–1889)
Tribe: Apache
Role: Warrior and spiritual leader
Significance:
Lozen, a skilled fighter and tactician, fought alongside her brother Victorio and later Geronimo to resist U.S. and Mexican forces encroaching on Apache lands. She was also a spiritual leader with reputed powers to foresee enemy movements.
Key Achievements:
Fought in numerous battles against U.S. and Mexican troops.
Protected women and children during Apache retreats.
Legacy: Lozen is remembered as a symbol of courage and resilience, defying gender norms to lead her people in war.
4. Sacagawea (c. 1788–1812)
Tribe: Shoshone
Role: Guide and diplomat during the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Significance:
Sacagawea played a crucial role in the success of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) by serving as a translator and guide through the unfamiliar western terrain.
Key Achievements:
Helped establish relations with Native tribes, including negotiating for horses from the Shoshone.
Provided critical knowledge of terrain and resources.
Legacy: Sacagawea symbolizes the significant contributions of Native women in shaping the early American frontier.
5. Running Eagle (Pitamakan) (c. 1814–1840s)
Tribe: Blackfeet
Role: Warrior and leader
Significance:
Running Eagle broke gender barriers as a woman warrior in the Blackfeet Nation. Known for her bravery, she led raids and hunts, earning respect from her people.
Key Achievements:
Successfully led war parties and hunting expeditions, roles traditionally reserved for men.
Became a revered figure in Blackfeet oral history.
Legacy: Running Eagle represents the empowerment of women within Native cultures and the importance of their leadership roles.
Life Lessons and Thought Processes from Studying Native Leadership During Westward Expansion
The era of westward expansion in the United States is often viewed through the lens of territorial growth and Manifest Destiny. However, by focusing on the experiences and leadership of Native Americans during this time, we gain profound insights into resilience, unity, cultural preservation, and the complexities of decision-making under pressure. These lessons have timeless relevance, offering guidance on leadership, ethics, and the importance of understanding diverse perspectives.
1. The Importance of Unity in the Face of Adversity
Lesson: Strength Comes from Collaboration
Native leaders like Tecumseh emphasized the power of unity. His efforts to create a pan-tribal confederacy showcased the strength that comes from setting aside differences and working toward a common goal. Despite the challenges of diverse languages, traditions, and rivalries, he recognized that collective action was essential to resist a common threat.
Thought Process:
Identify shared goals and values, even among diverse groups.
Prioritize collective well-being over individual interests.
Modern Application:
In any team or organization, unity can amplify strength. Whether in business, community projects, or social movements, finding common ground helps achieve goals that would be unattainable individually.
2. Resilience in the Face of Overwhelming Odds
Lesson: Adaptation and Perseverance Are Key to Survival
The stories of leaders like Black Hawk, who fought to reclaim ancestral lands, and Lozen, who defied gender norms to lead her people, demonstrate remarkable resilience. Despite facing insurmountable odds, these leaders persisted, adapting strategies and finding ways to protect their communities.
Thought Process:
Accept challenges as opportunities for growth and adaptation.
Focus on long-term survival and cultural preservation, even if short-term goals seem unattainable.
Modern Application:
Life often presents challenges that feel insurmountable. By staying adaptable, focusing on core values, and refusing to give up, individuals can overcome obstacles and find innovative solutions.
3. Balancing Diplomacy and Resistance
Lesson: Know When to Fight and When to Negotiate
Native leaders had to make difficult decisions about whether to resist expansion through armed conflict or pursue diplomacy. Nancy Ward exemplified the value of peaceful negotiation, while Tecumseh and Osceola highlighted the necessity of resistance when diplomacy failed. Both approaches required careful consideration of risks, outcomes, and long-term impacts.
Thought Process:
Assess the situation thoroughly to determine the most effective approach.
Recognize the value of both strength and diplomacy, depending on the context.
Modern Application:
Effective leaders know when to advocate for their position through assertive negotiation and when to stand firm in defense of their principles. This balance is critical in conflict resolution, business, and personal relationships.
4. Preserving Cultural Identity Amid Change
Lesson: Cultural Values Anchor Communities
The leaders of westward expansion understood that preserving language, traditions, and spiritual practices was as vital as defending land. Figures like Red Eagle sought to protect traditional ways of life while navigating the pressures of assimilation and displacement.
Thought Process:
Prioritize core values and cultural heritage, even in times of upheaval.
Adapt to change without losing sight of identity.
Modern Application:
In a globalized world, maintaining cultural or personal identity while embracing change is a valuable skill. Recognizing the importance of heritage and traditions can provide stability and a sense of purpose.
5. Ethical Leadership in Difficult Times
Lesson: Leadership Requires Sacrifice and Vision
Many Native leaders, such as Tecumseh and Black Hawk, demonstrated a willingness to sacrifice personal safety for the well-being of their people. They combined practical strategies with visionary goals, inspiring their communities to persevere.
Thought Process:
Think beyond immediate concerns to focus on long-term impacts.
Lead with integrity, even when facing difficult choices.
Modern Application:
Effective leadership involves prioritizing the greater good over personal gain. By maintaining a clear vision and acting ethically, leaders can inspire trust and commitment from their teams.
6. The Cost of Division and the Value of Cooperation
Lesson: Internal Divisions Can Undermine Goals
Conflicts within tribes, such as those seen in the Creek War, weakened Native resistance. These divisions were often exacerbated by external pressures and manipulations from the U.S. government.
Thought Process:
Recognize the dangers of internal conflicts and work to resolve them.
Foster a spirit of cooperation and mutual respect within groups.
Modern Application:
Divisions within teams or communities can derail progress. By addressing conflicts early and focusing on shared objectives, individuals and groups can avoid fragmentation and achieve success.
Vocabulary to Learn While Studying U.S. Government Policies for Native Americans
1. Confederacy
Definition: A union of groups, tribes, or states formed for mutual support and common goals.
Sample Sentence: Tecumseh worked tirelessly to build a confederacy of Native tribes to resist U.S. expansion into their lands.
2. Assimilation
Definition: The process by which one cultural group adopts the customs, beliefs, or practices of another, often under pressure.
Sample Sentence: The U.S. government promoted assimilation policies, encouraging Native Americans to adopt farming and Christianity.
3. Relocation
Definition: The forced or voluntary movement of people from one place to another.
Sample Sentence: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the relocation of Native tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River.
4. Cession
Definition: The formal giving up of rights, property, or territory, often by treaty.
Sample Sentence: The cession of Native lands was a common outcome of treaties negotiated during westward expansion.
5. Annexation
Definition: The act of adding or incorporating a territory into an existing political unit, such as a country or state.
Sample Sentence: The annexation of Texas in 1845 added a large territory to the United States but increased tensions with Native tribes and Mexico.
6. Diplomacy
Definition: The practice of managing relations between groups or nations through negotiation rather than conflict.
Sample Sentence: Nancy Ward used diplomacy to maintain peace between the Cherokee and American settlers.
7. Encroachment
Definition: The gradual intrusion onto someone else's land, rights, or territory.
Sample Sentence: The encroachment of settlers into Native lands led to numerous conflicts during westward expansion.
8. Reservation
Definition: A designated area of land set aside by the U.S. government for Native American tribes.
Sample Sentence: After the Trail of Tears, many Cherokee were forced to live on reservations far from their ancestral lands.
9. Sovereignty
Definition: The right of a group or nation to govern itself without interference from others.
Sample Sentence: Native leaders like Tecumseh fought to protect their sovereignty against U.S. expansion.
10. Autonomy
Definition: The ability or right of a group or community to govern itself independently.
Sample Sentence: Many Native tribes sought to maintain their autonomy in the face of growing U.S. control.
11. Territory
Definition: A defined area of land under the jurisdiction of a government or group.
Sample Sentence: The Louisiana Purchase added a vast territory to the United States, fueling westward migration.
12. Frontier
Definition: The edge of a settled area, beyond which lies unexplored or unsettled land.
Sample Sentence: Settlers moved westward to establish homes on the frontier, often clashing with Native tribes.
13. Displacement
Definition: The forced movement of people from their homes or lands.
Sample Sentence: The westward expansion of settlers resulted in the widespread displacement of Native American communities.
14. Cultural Preservation
Definition: The act of maintaining and protecting the traditions, customs, and heritage of a culture.
Sample Sentence: Leaders like Nancy Ward worked to promote cultural preservation among their people while navigating changes brought by settlers.
Engaging Activities to Teach Students About Westward Expansion and Native Leadership
Activity 1: Create a Historical Map "Mapping the Journey of Westward Expansion"
Recommended Age: 10–14 (Upper Elementary and Middle School)
Objective: To help students understand the geographical and political changes during westward expansion and how these changes affected Native tribes.
Materials:
Large blank maps of the United States (one per student or group)
Colored pencils or markers
Timeline of events (e.g., Louisiana Purchase, Treaty of Greenville, Indian Removal Act)
Access to historical maps (digital or printed)
Instructions:
1. Provide students with a blank map of the United States.
2. Using the timeline and historical maps, have students draw and label key territorial changes (e.g., the Louisiana Purchase, lands ceded by treaties).
3. Highlight regions inhabited by specific Native tribes before and after these changes.
4. Use different colors to show territories gained by settlers and those lost by Native Americans.
5. Discuss the significance of these changes as a class.
Learning Outcome:Students will gain a visual understanding of how westward expansion reshaped the U.S. and affected Native American territories, fostering spatial awareness and historical empathy.
Activity #2: Role-Playing Historical Figures
Recommended Age: 12–18 (Middle and High School)
Title: "Voices of the Past: A Historical Debate"
Objective: To help students understand multiple perspectives during westward expansion by researching and role-playing key figures.
Materials:
Biographical information about figures such as Tecumseh, Black Hawk, Andrew Jackson, and settlers
Paper and pens for notes
Optional: Costumes or props for added engagement
Instructions:
1. Assign each student or small group a historical figure to research.
2. Provide guiding questions for their research, such as:
§ What were this person’s goals during westward expansion?
§ How did they view the changes happening in their time?
3. Organize a mock debate or town hall meeting where students, in character, discuss issues like land ownership, Native sovereignty, and U.S. expansion policies.
4. Allow time for reflection on what they learned from representing different perspectives.
Learning Outcome:Students will develop a deeper understanding of historical figures' motivations and conflicts, as well as critical thinking and communication skills.
Activity #3: Create a Cultural Artifact "Native American Cultural Preservation: Designing Artifacts"
Recommended Age: 8–12 (Elementary and Lower Middle School)
Objective: To teach students about the cultural significance of Native American traditions and their role in resisting assimilation.
Materials:
Clay or modeling dough
Paints and brushes
Reference images of Native American pottery, jewelry, and tools
Short descriptions of cultural artifacts and their uses
Instructions:
1. Show examples of Native American artifacts and discuss their cultural importance.
2. Have students choose a type of artifact to recreate, such as pottery, a beaded necklace, or a painted symbol.
3. Provide materials for students to design and decorate their artifact, incorporating patterns or symbols inspired by Native traditions.
4. Discuss the significance of preserving cultural traditions amid westward expansion.
Learning Outcome:Students will learn about the importance of cultural heritage and how Native Americans preserved their traditions in the face of adversity.
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