Lesson Plans for the Expansion West: The Indian Wars of 1860-1890

The Life of Chief American Horse: A Story of Resistance and Diplomacy

A Warrior’s Beginnings (1830s–1850s)

Under the vast, open skies of the Great Plains, a Lakota boy was born sometime in the early 1830s. He belonged to the Oglala Sioux, a powerful and proud people who roamed the plains of what is now South Dakota, Nebraska, and Wyoming. His name, American Horse (Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke), was one that would later be known among both Native American warriors and U.S. officials.

As a child, he grew up in the rich traditions of the Lakota Sioux, learning the ways of hunting, riding, and warfare. He listened to the stories of his ancestors, those who had fought to defend their land from enemies both native and foreign. His youth was spent following the great herds of buffalo, mastering the bow and spear, and riding across the endless plains.

By the time he reached manhood, American Horse had proven himself a fierce and cunning warrior. He fought alongside his fellow Lakota warriors in battles against rival tribes such as the Crow and Pawnee, securing his reputation as a skilled fighter. However, as the years passed, a new and far greater threat emerged—one that did not come from other Native nations, but from the expanding United States.

Rising Conflict: The Fight Against U.S. Expansion (1860s–1870s)

The 1860s brought great changes and turmoil to the Lakota. With more white settlers, railroads, and soldiers pushing west, the U.S. government sought to force Native American tribes onto reservations, breaking treaties whenever it suited them.

During this time, two different Lakota leaders named American Horse emerged. One, known as Old American Horse, was a prominent warrior in Red Cloud’s War (1866–1868), fighting fiercely against U.S. soldiers to protect the Powder River region. The American Horse of this story—often referred to as Young American Horse—was his nephew or close relative.

By the 1870s, tensions had escalated into full-scale war between the Lakota and the U.S. government. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills (1874), land that had been promised to the Lakota by the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), led to a surge of miners and settlers, violating the treaty and sparking renewed conflict.

During the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877, American Horse took up arms against the U.S. Army, joining the ranks of legendary warriors such as Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull, and Gall. He fought in several battles, resisting the relentless U.S. military campaign to force the Lakota onto reservations.

However, war was not the only path American Horse saw for his people. While he had been a fierce warrior, he also understood that continued fighting might lead to the complete destruction of his people. As the Lakota suffered defeats, starvation, and relentless military pursuit, he began to consider diplomacy as a means of survival.

The Battle of Slim Buttes and the End of Lakota Resistance (1876)

The turning point in American Horse’s life came in September 1876 at the Battle of Slim Buttes. After the stunning Lakota victory at Little Bighorn (June 25–26, 1876)—where Custer and his men were wiped out—the U.S. Army launched an all-out war against the remaining Lakota and Cheyenne warriors.

On September 9, 1876, U.S. troops under General George Crook attacked a Lakota village at Slim Buttes, South Dakota. American Horse and his warriors fought fiercely to defend their people, but they were vastly outnumbered and outgunned. Many were killed, and the village was destroyed.

During the battle, American Horse and several warriors, women, and children took refuge in a ravine, where they held out against U.S. forces for several hours. Eventually, they were surrounded and forced to surrender. American Horse, wounded in the abdomen, emerged with great dignity, but his injuries were severe.

Knowing he was dying, he made a final plea to his captors, asking for mercy for his people. He reportedly told his captors:

“I have fought as long as I could. If I had my warriors with me, I would fight even more, but we have been trapped. Now, take me and my women and children and do what you will with us.”

American Horse’s wounds were mortal, and despite efforts to save him, he died later that day. His death marked the beginning of the final phase of the Lakota resistance.

Legacy of American Horse

The death of American Horse symbolized the end of the traditional Lakota way of life. Within a year of his passing, many remaining Lakota leaders, including Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, were either captured, killed, or forced to surrender. By 1877, most Lakota had been moved onto reservations, and the great buffalo herds that had sustained them for centuries were nearly gone.

Although he did not live to see the final defeat of his people, American Horse’s story is one of bravery, leadership, and sacrifice. He fought for his people’s survival but also recognized the changing world around him.

The Two American Horses: A Tale of Leadership

Interestingly, American Horse’s legacy is sometimes confused with that of another Lakota leader, known as Chief American Horse (1840–1908), who was a more diplomatic figure and later worked with the U.S. government. While the American Horse of this story died in battle in 1876, the later American Horse embraced diplomacy and education, becoming a progressive Lakota leader in the late 19th century.

The Relationship Between Native Americans and the U.S. Government

The 1850s marked a period of increasing tension between Native American tribes and the U.S. government. As the nation continued its westward expansion, driven by the ideology of Manifest Destiny, Native American lands became prime targets for settlement, resource extraction, and transportation routes. This expansion led to the frequent violation of previous treaties, escalating conflicts between Native tribes and settlers. The construction of railroads, the California Gold Rush, and the push into the Great Plains further strained relations, as indigenous peoples found themselves displaced, marginalized, and forced to compete for diminishing resources.

Broken Treaties and Government Policies

Throughout the decade, the U.S. government negotiated several treaties with Native American tribes, often under duress or deception. Many of these treaties promised land reservations, financial compensation, and protection from settlers, but they were frequently broken or altered when the government deemed it necessary. The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, for example, attempted to establish peace between settlers and Plains tribes by setting defined tribal territories. However, continued incursions by settlers and the U.S. military led to growing resentment and conflict, rendering the treaty largely ineffective.

Forced Removal and Reservations

By the 1850s, the reservation system was becoming a dominant strategy for dealing with Native American populations. The U.S. government sought to confine tribes to designated areas where they could be more easily monitored and controlled. These reservations often consisted of land that was far from traditional hunting grounds, lacked sufficient resources, and restricted tribal autonomy. The system was designed to assimilate Native Americans into Euro-American ways of life, often through forced agricultural labor and schooling for Native children. However, these efforts frequently led to hardship, starvation, and resistance among indigenous communities.

Military Engagements and Resistance

As Native American tribes resisted displacement and the loss of their lands, violent clashes with the U.S. military and settlers became more common. The decade saw conflicts such as the Yakama War (1855–1858) in Washington Territory and the Sioux uprising in Minnesota. These conflicts were often responses to broken treaties, settler encroachment, and violent retribution against indigenous peoples. In many cases, U.S. military forces used brutal tactics to suppress Native resistance, resulting in massacres, forced relocations, and long-lasting animosity between Native Americans and the federal government.

The Impact of Westward Expansion

The 1850s set the stage for further displacement and oppression of Native American tribes in the latter half of the 19th century. With the increasing flow of settlers into indigenous lands, the government continued to justify the use of force and restrictive policies to control Native populations. The decade saw the beginning of patterns that would define Native American relations with the U.S. government for decades: broken treaties, forced removals, and violent suppression of resistance. The period also solidified the reservation system as the primary means of controlling and isolating Native American communities, a system that would have lasting repercussions for indigenous culture, sovereignty, and survival.

The Commissioner of Indian Affairs: Origins, Role, and Impact

Origins of the Office: Early U.S. Policies Toward Native Americans

The Office of Indian Affairs (OIA), later renamed the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), was established in 1824 within the War Department of the United States. The position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs was created to oversee and implement U.S. policies related to Native American tribes, including treaty negotiations, land management, and the administration of Indian reservations.

The establishment of this office reflected the growing complexities of U.S. relations with Native American nations, particularly as white settlement expanded westward. By the early 19th century, the U.S. government recognized that Indian affairs needed a dedicated administrative body to manage relations, enforce treaties, and oversee federal policies concerning Native American lands and populations.

Why Was the Office Established?

The creation of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs was driven by several key factors:

1. Expansion and Westward Settlement

During the early 1800s, the U.S. was rapidly expanding westward under the doctrine of Manifest Destiny. As settlers moved into Native American lands, conflicts arose over land ownership, resources, and sovereignty. The government needed an office to negotiate treaties, handle disputes, and manage the forced removal of tribes to designated lands.

2. The Indian Removal Policy

One of the most significant policies leading to the formation of the office was Indian removal. By the 1820s, many politicians—including President Andrew Jackson—advocated for the relocation of Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 later formalized this policy, leading to events like the Trail of Tears. The Office of Indian Affairs was established to administer and enforce these removals, ensuring that tribes were relocated onto designated reservations.

3. The Need for a Coordinated Federal Indian Policy

Before 1824, U.S. policies toward Native Americans were handled in a disorganized manner, often led by state governments, military officers, or local agents with conflicting interests. By creating a centralized office, the U.S. government sought to unify Indian policy, ensuring that treaties, land allotments, and negotiations were managed under federal oversight.

4. Military Conflicts and Indian Wars

Many Native American tribes resisted forced removals, leading to armed conflicts such as the Seminole Wars, the Black Hawk War, and later, the Great Sioux War. The Office of Indian Affairs was tasked with handling both diplomatic and military aspects of Indian relations, often working alongside the U.S. Army to suppress Native resistance.

Early Years of the Office of Indian Affairs (1824–1849)

The Office of Indian Affairs was initially placed under the War Department, reflecting the military nature of U.S.-Native American relations at the time. During its early years, the office was primarily concerned with:

• Negotiating treaties that often led to Native land cessions.

• Overseeing forced relocations and removals.

• Managing trade and commerce between settlers and Native Americans.

The first Commissioner of Indian Affairs was Thomas L. McKenney, who served from 1824 to 1830. McKenney was an advocate for Native American rights but struggled against growing pressures to remove indigenous people from their ancestral lands.

Transfer to the Department of the Interior (1849)

In 1849, the Office of Indian Affairs was transferred from the War Department to the Department of the Interior, reflecting a shift from military control to civilian administration. This transition marked the beginning of policies focused on assimilation, reservation management, and land allotment.

During this period, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs became responsible for:

• Managing Indian reservations and government-appointed Indian agents.

• Overseeing Native American education programs, including the establishment of Indian boarding schools.

• Implementing land policies, which later resulted in the Dawes Act of 1887.

The Commissioner of Indian Affairs and the Assimilation Era (Late 1800s – Early 1900s)

The Dawes Act and Land Allotment Policies

One of the most significant policies administered by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs was the Dawes Act of 1887, which aimed to break up tribal landholdings and assign individual land allotments to Native Americans. The goal was to assimilate Native Americans into American society by encouraging private land ownership, but the result was the massive loss of tribal lands, with millions of acres sold to white settlers.

The Boarding School System and Cultural Suppression

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Office of Indian Affairs also implemented policies aimed at erasing Native American culture. Under the guidance of officials such as Commissioner Thomas J. Morgan (1889–1893), Native children were forcibly taken from their families and placed in government-run boarding schools, where they were forbidden from speaking their languages, practicing their religions, or maintaining their traditional ways of life.

20th-Century Changes: Reforms and the Indian New Deal

By the early 20th century, the failures of assimilation policies became evident, leading to gradual reforms within the Office of Indian Affairs.

The Indian Reorganization Act (1934) and Policy Shifts

In 1934, the U.S. government passed the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) under President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal. The IRA:

• Ended the land allotment system established by the Dawes Act.

• Encouraged tribal self-governance and allowed tribes to establish their own governments.

• Restored some land to Native American tribes and promoted economic development.

The Commissioner of Indian Affairs during this period, John Collier (1933–1945), led efforts to reverse assimilation policies and support Native American cultural revival.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs and Modern Native American Policy

The Termination Era (1950s–1960s)

Despite the reforms of the Indian Reorganization Act, U.S. policies shifted again in the 1950s and 1960s, when the government sought to terminate tribal sovereignty and integrate Native Americans into mainstream society. The Termination Policy resulted in the loss of federal recognition for many tribes, the elimination of federal services, and increased Native American poverty.

Self-Determination and Present-Day Policies

By the 1970s, Native American activists and tribal leaders fought for greater autonomy and self-governance. Under the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs helped facilitate:

• The return of decision-making power to tribes.

• Greater federal funding for Native American education, health, and economic programs.

• The recognition of Native American rights and sovereignty.

The Evolving Role of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs

The Office of Indian Affairs, later the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), has played a complex and controversial role in U.S. history. Established in 1824 to manage relations between the federal government and Native American tribes, it quickly became a tool of forced removal, assimilation, and land dispossession.

While early commissioners focused on treaty enforcement and land policies, later officials oversaw boarding schools, the Dawes Act, and other assimilationist policies. Over time, the office evolved to support tribal sovereignty, but the long history of injustices committed under its authority continues to shape Native American experiences today.

Despite reforms, Native American communities still face challenges related to land rights, economic development, and cultural preservation, many of which stem from policies administered by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs over the past two centuries.

The Battle of Sand Creek (1864): A Detailed Examination

Origins of the Battle: A Prelude to Violence

The Battle of Sand Creek, also known as the Sand Creek Massacre, was one of the darkest moments in American history, revealing the brutal policies of the U.S. government toward Native American tribes. The origins of the battle lay in the broader context of the American Civil War, westward expansion, and longstanding tensions between Native American tribes and settlers.

During the early 1860s, the Colorado Territory was rapidly developing as settlers flooded the region in search of land and economic opportunities, particularly following the discovery of gold in the Rocky Mountains in 1858. However, much of this land was already occupied by indigenous tribes, particularly the Cheyenne and Arapaho, who had lived and hunted in the area for generations. The increasing presence of settlers and the depletion of resources led to conflicts between Native Americans and white settlers.

In an effort to manage tensions, the U.S. government signed the Treaty of Fort Wise in 1861 with several Cheyenne and Arapaho leaders. The treaty reduced the tribes’ land to a small reservation in southeastern Colorado, near present-day Eads. However, many tribal members rejected the treaty, particularly among the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers, a militant warrior society that opposed the increasing encroachment of settlers. Tensions escalated into open conflict by 1864, as Native groups raided settlements and U.S. military forces retaliated, culminating in a brutal cycle of violence.

The Road to Sand Creek: Broken Promises and Rising Tensions

The territorial governor of Colorado, John Evans, took a hardline stance against Native Americans, urging settlers to arm themselves and calling for volunteer militias to be formed to counter indigenous resistance. He issued a proclamation stating that all "friendly Indians" should report to military posts for protection, while any who remained in the wilderness would be considered hostile. This order put the Cheyenne and Arapaho in an impossible position: surrender to uncertain treatment by the U.S. military or risk being targeted as enemies.

In an attempt to ensure peace, Chief Black Kettle, a respected Cheyenne leader, sought negotiations with U.S. officials. He and his followers moved to a designated encampment along Sand Creek, believing they would be safe under the protection of U.S. forces. Black Kettle had previously met with federal authorities and had been assured that his people would not be harmed if they complied with government orders.

However, Colonel John Chivington, a former Methodist minister and commander of the Colorado Volunteers, saw an opportunity to launch a decisive attack against the Cheyenne and Arapaho, regardless of their peaceful intentions. Chivington, a staunch advocate of total war against Native Americans, had expressed his belief that they should be "exterminated" to ensure the safety of settlers. His regiment, composed mainly of volunteer soldiers eager for battle, was given orders to strike the encampment at Sand Creek.

The Massacre at Sand Creek: November 29, 1864

At dawn on November 29, 1864, Colonel Chivington and approximately 700 troops of the Colorado Volunteer Cavalry descended upon Black Kettle’s village at Sand Creek. The encampment consisted of around 700 Cheyenne and Arapaho people, the majority of whom were women, children, and elderly individuals. Black Kettle, who had previously displayed an American flag as a sign of peace, reportedly raised both the U.S. flag and a white flag of surrender when the soldiers approached. These symbols of non-aggression were ignored.

The attack began with a barrage of gunfire as Chivington’s men rode into the village, indiscriminately shooting at anyone in sight. The unarmed Cheyenne and Arapaho were caught completely off guard. Some tried to flee, while others attempted to dig trenches or hide in the sandbanks along the creek. The soldiers pursued them relentlessly.

The brutality of the massacre was unprecedented. Reports from survivors and even some soldiers described horrific scenes in which soldiers scalped men, women, and children, mutilated bodies, and engaged in acts of extreme violence. Many soldiers cut off body parts as trophies, displaying them in public after returning to Denver. Women and children were shot at close range, and the elderly were executed without mercy.

By the time the attack ended, estimates of the number of Native Americans killed ranged from 150 to 200 people, though some historians suggest the number may have been higher. At least two-thirds of those killed were women and children. Black Kettle managed to escape, but his wife was shot multiple times and left for dead.

Immediate Reactions and the Aftermath

News of the massacre spread quickly, sparking outrage both among Native American tribes and within certain segments of the U.S. government and military. While Governor Evans defended the attack and Chivington was initially celebrated by many settlers, not all agreed with the justification for the slaughter.

Several eyewitness accounts from soldiers who participated in the attack described the horror of the event. Captain Silas Soule, a Union officer, openly condemned Chivington’s actions, refusing to let his men fire on the unarmed Native Americans. His written testimony, along with reports from other soldiers, played a crucial role in exposing the massacre for what it was.

In response to mounting criticism, the U.S. government launched three separate investigations, including a congressional inquiry. These investigations concluded that the attack at Sand Creek had been an unjustified massacre rather than a legitimate military battle. Chivington was widely condemned, though he never faced criminal charges. Governor Evans was forced to resign due to his role in inciting violence, but no further action was taken against those responsible.

Long-Term Consequences and Native American Resistance

The Sand Creek Massacre had far-reaching consequences for Native American relations with the U.S. government. For the Cheyenne and Arapaho, it shattered any remaining trust in federal promises of protection. Many survivors, including Black Kettle, continued to seek peace, but growing anger among the tribes led to an increase in violent resistance across the Plains.

The Fetterman Fight (1866): Origins, Battle, and Aftermath

Origins of the Conflict: Tensions on the Bozeman Trail

The Fetterman Fight, also known as the Fetterman Massacre, was a pivotal battle between the U.S. Army and the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors on December 21, 1866. This engagement, part of Red Cloud’s War (1866–1868), was the result of growing tensions over the U.S. government’s attempt to establish control over the northern Great Plains and secure safe passage for settlers moving west.

The origins of the conflict can be traced back to the Bozeman Trail, a route that connected the Oregon Trail to the Montana goldfields. This trail cut directly through the Powder River Basin, a region that had long been the hunting grounds of the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes. These indigenous groups relied on the rich buffalo populations for sustenance and viewed the increasing presence of settlers and military forces as a direct threat to their way of life.

In 1865, the U.S. government, eager to open the region for settlers and gold seekers, began constructing military forts along the Bozeman Trail. Fort Reno, Fort Phil Kearny, and Fort C.F. Smith were established to protect travelers from potential attacks by Native American warriors. However, the Lakota, led by Chief Red Cloud, opposed the construction of these forts and launched a campaign to resist U.S. expansion. This resistance became known as Red Cloud’s War, a series of skirmishes and attacks aimed at driving the U.S. Army out of the region.

Fort Phil Kearny and Rising Hostilities

One of the most contested locations along the Bozeman Trail was Fort Phil Kearny, situated near present-day Buffalo, Wyoming. The fort, completed in 1866, became a primary target for Native American warriors determined to halt the intrusion of settlers and soldiers into their lands. The U.S. Army garrisoned the fort with around 400 soldiers, led by Colonel Henry Carrington.

Carrington, a cautious and defensive-minded officer, was aware of the Native American resistance but sought to fortify the post rather than engage in open battle. His reluctance to aggressively attack nearby indigenous forces frustrated some of his subordinates, including Captain William J. Fetterman, a Civil War veteran known for his confidence and aggressive demeanor. Fetterman, who arrived at the fort in November 1866, reportedly dismissed the fighting capabilities of Native warriors, boasting that with 80 soldiers, he could "ride through the whole Sioux nation." His overconfidence would prove to be his downfall.

Throughout the fall and winter of 1866, Lakota and Cheyenne warriors, under the leadership of Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, and other war chiefs, intensified their attacks on soldiers and supply lines. Their goal was to provoke the soldiers into pursuing them away from the fort, where they could be ambushed and destroyed. On December 21, 1866, they set their most elaborate trap yet.

The Battle: The Trap is Set

On the morning of December 21, a group of Native warriors staged an attack on a woodcutting party near the fort. These woodcutters, who ventured out regularly to gather fuel, were essential to the fort’s survival during the harsh winter. When reports of the attack reached Fort Phil Kearny, Colonel Carrington ordered a relief force to intervene.

Fetterman, eager for battle, volunteered to lead the rescue mission. Carrington, despite his misgivings about Fetterman’s aggressiveness, allowed him to take command, but explicitly ordered him not to cross Lodge Trail Ridge, a ridgeline beyond which visibility was limited and from where a retreat to the fort would be difficult.

Fetterman assembled a force of 80 men, including 49 infantrymen, 27 cavalrymen, and two civilian scouts. Among his officers was Lieutenant George W. Grummond, another aggressive officer who also underestimated Native American tactics. The force departed the fort around noon, heading toward the ambush site.

The Ambush and Total Defeat

As Fetterman and his men advanced, they encountered a small group of Lakota warriors, including Crazy Horse, who rode ahead in what appeared to be a disorganized retreat. This was a classic Native American battle tactic—a feigned retreat designed to lure enemy forces into a vulnerable position. Fetterman, believing he had the upper hand, disobeyed Carrington’s orders and pursued the fleeing warriors over Lodge Trail Ridge.

Once beyond the ridge, Fetterman and his men entered a narrow valley where more than 1,500 Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors were waiting in concealed positions. Almost instantly, Native warriors swarmed the outnumbered soldiers from all sides. Armed with bows, lances, and some firearms, they encircled Fetterman’s force, cutting off any chance of retreat.

The battle lasted less than 30 minutes. The soldiers fought desperately, but they were hopelessly outnumbered. Many of them had outdated Springfield muskets, which were slow to reload compared to the Native warriors’ bows and repeating rifles. Fetterman and Grummond, realizing there was no escape, ordered their men to form a defensive perimeter, but the overwhelming Native forces quickly overran their position.

Not a single U.S. soldier survived. All 81 men were killed. Some reports indicate that many soldiers committed suicide to avoid being captured and tortured. When reinforcements from Fort Phil Kearny arrived hours later, they found the bodies stripped, scalped, and mutilated, a common practice in Plains Indian warfare to intimidate enemies.

The Aftermath and Impact on Red Cloud’s War

The Fetterman Fight was the worst military defeat for the U.S. Army against Native American forces up to that point. The total destruction of Fetterman’s command sent shockwaves through the U.S. military and government. It reinforced the effectiveness of Native American guerrilla warfare and their ability to decisively defeat well-armed U.S. forces in open battle.

At Fort Phil Kearny, morale plummeted. Fearing further attacks, Colonel Carrington strengthened the fort’s defenses, but he was soon relieved of his command and replaced by General Philip St. George Cooke. Meanwhile, the U.S. Army began re-evaluating its strategies for dealing with the Plains tribes.

Red Cloud’s War continued for another year and a half, with Lakota and Cheyenne warriors maintaining pressure on the U.S. military. Their victory at the Fetterman Fight emboldened them to continue attacking forts along the Bozeman Trail.

The Fort Laramie Treaty and U.S. Retreat

The Fetterman Massacre ultimately forced the U.S. government to negotiate peace with the Lakota and Cheyenne. By 1868, after continued Native victories, the U.S. agreed to abandon the Bozeman Trail forts under the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868). This treaty recognized the Black Hills and the Powder River region as part of Lakota territory, guaranteeing that no white settlers or soldiers would enter the land.

The Lakota, led by Red Cloud, had successfully defended their homeland, marking one of the few times in history that Native American resistance directly forced the U.S. government to abandon a major military initiative. However, the peace was short-lived. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills in the 1870s led the U.S. to violate the treaty, igniting another war—the Great Sioux War of 1876, which included the famous Battle of the Little Bighorn.

The Battle of the Rosebud (1876): Origins, Battle, and Aftermath

Origins of the Battle: Tensions Leading to the Great Sioux War

The Battle of the Rosebud, fought on June 17, 1876, was a critical engagement during the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877. Although often overshadowed by the Battle of the Little Bighorn, which occurred just eight days later, the Battle of the Rosebud was a turning point in the conflict between the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and the U.S. Army. It marked one of the largest Native American victories over the U.S. military and disrupted the Army’s coordinated campaign to subdue the Sioux and Cheyenne.

The origins of the battle can be traced back to the U.S. government’s violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), which had established the Black Hills as part of the Great Sioux Reservation. However, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills in 1874 led to an influx of miners and settlers, despite the fact that the land had been legally recognized as belonging to the Lakota. Rather than protecting Native lands, the U.S. government sought to force the Lakota and Cheyenne onto reservations and seize the Black Hills for white settlement.

By late 1875, tensions had escalated to the point where the U.S. government issued an ultimatum, ordering all Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho bands to return to reservations by January 31, 1876. Many resisted this forced relocation, including bands led by Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and Two Moon. When they refused, the U.S. Army launched a military campaign to bring them into submission, initiating what became the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877.

The U.S. Military Strategy and Crook’s Role

The U.S. Army devised a three-pronged strategy to surround and defeat the Lakota and Cheyenne forces. The plan involved three major expeditions:

1. Colonel John Gibbon’s column advancing from the west.

2. General Alfred Terry’s column, which included Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer’s 7th Cavalry, moving from the east.

3. General George Crook’s column, advancing from the south.

General George Crook, an experienced Indian fighter, led a force of approximately 1,300 men, including troops from the 2nd and 3rd Cavalry, 4th and 9th Infantry, and several Crow and Shoshone scouts. His mission was to move north from Wyoming into Montana Territory, locate and engage the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors, and coordinate with the other Army columns.

Crook’s forces marched through rugged terrain, struggling with limited supplies and difficult conditions. On June 16, 1876, his scouts reported a large gathering of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors along Rosebud Creek, a tributary of the Yellowstone River. What Crook did not know was that the Native forces, under the leadership of Crazy Horse and Two Moon, had already learned of his approach and were preparing a counterattack.

The Battle of the Rosebud: June 17, 1876

Crazy Horse’s Surprise Attack

At 8:30 a.m. on June 17, as Crook’s forces were marching along Rosebud Creek, more than 1,500 Lakota and Cheyenne warriors suddenly attacked the advancing column. Crazy Horse, a brilliant tactician, had divided his forces into multiple groups, using the terrain to his advantage.

The attack came from multiple directions, throwing Crook’s soldiers into chaos. Initially, the Native warriors charged straight into the Army’s advance guard, engaging in fierce hand-to-hand combat. Crook’s men, surprised by the attack, scrambled to form defensive positions.

A Prolonged and Intense Battle

Unlike previous Native American engagements, which were often quick ambushes or hit-and-run attacks, the Battle of the Rosebud lasted for over six hours. It was one of the longest and most complex battles ever fought between Native American warriors and the U.S. military.

The battle was characterized by fluid movements and multiple assaults. The Lakota and Cheyenne warriors launched wave after wave of attacks, attempting to encircle the soldiers and cut them off from their supply lines. The U.S. soldiers and Crow and Shoshone scouts fought fiercely, using rifles to hold their ground against overwhelming numbers. Key Moments in the Battle include:

• Lakota warriors attempted to overrun Crook’s left flank, forcing the soldiers to retreat to higher ground.

• Crook’s Crow and Shoshone scouts played a critical role, charging into battle and preventing a complete rout of the U.S. forces.

• Crazy Horse personally led several charges, demonstrating his leadership and inspiring his warriors to fight relentlessly.

• The battle seesawed back and forth, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage for hours.

Eventually, as the day wore on, Crook’s forces began to run low on ammunition, and their horses were exhausted. Realizing that he could not sustain the fight any longer, Crook ordered a withdrawal southward, effectively conceding the battlefield to Crazy Horse and his warriors.

Aftermath: Consequences of the Battle

A Tactical Defeat for the U.S. Army

Casualty estimates vary, but Crook’s forces lost about 28 men killed and 56 wounded, while Native American losses were estimated to be around 25 to 40 warriors killed.

Crook’s failure to defeat Crazy Horse had significant consequences for the larger campaign against the Lakota and Cheyenne. The most important result was that Crook did not advance north to support General Terry and Custer’s forces, leaving Custer’s 7th Cavalry isolated.

Impact on the Battle of the Little Bighorn

Had Crook pressed forward after the Battle of the Rosebud, he might have joined forces with Terry and Gibbon’s columns, potentially altering the outcome of the Battle of the Little Bighorn. However, his retreat left Custer’s forces to fight alone when they attacked Sitting Bull’s encampment on June 25–26, 1876.

The Psychological and Strategic Victory for the Lakota and Cheyenne

For the Lakota and Cheyenne, the Battle of the Rosebud was a huge psychological and strategic victory. It proved that they could successfully launch large-scale coordinated attacks against U.S. forces and that their tactics of mobility and decentralized leadership were effective against the U.S. Army’s traditional battle formations. Crazy Horse and Two Moon’s warriors gained confidence from their success, and many of the warriors who fought at Rosebud went on to fight at the Little Bighorn.

The Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876): Origins, Battle, and Aftermath

Origins of the Battle: Clashes Over Land and Sovereignty

The Battle of the Little Bighorn, fought on June 25–26, 1876, was one of the most famous clashes between Native American tribes and the U.S. Army. Often called Custer’s Last Stand, the battle was a defining moment in the Great Sioux War of 1876, as it showcased the strength and unity of the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes against U.S. expansionism. The battle ended in a complete defeat for the U.S. Army’s 7th Cavalry, led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, but the victory was short-lived for the Native Americans.

The origins of the battle were deeply tied to the U.S. government's continued violations of treaties with Native American tribes and the relentless push for westward expansion. In 1868, the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed between the U.S. and the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, granting them exclusive control over the Black Hills in present-day South Dakota. However, the treaty was effectively nullified when gold was discovered in the Black Hills in 1874, leading to a massive influx of prospectors, miners, and settlers into the region.

The Black Hills were not only rich in gold, but they were also sacred to the Lakota Sioux, who saw their land being stolen in violation of the treaty. Instead of honoring their agreements, the U.S. government attempted to force the Lakota and other tribes onto designated reservations by offering to buy the Black Hills. When negotiations failed, the government issued an ultimatum in December 1875, ordering all Native Americans living off the reservations to return by January 31, 1876, or be considered hostile.

Many Lakota and Cheyenne, led by Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and other war leaders, refused to comply. They saw the demand as unjust, since they had never agreed to surrender their lands in the first place. By the spring of 1876, thousands of Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors had gathered in a large encampment along the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory, preparing to resist U.S. military forces.

The U.S. Military's Campaign Against the Sioux

In response to the defiance of Native leaders, the U.S. Army launched a three-pronged military campaign to force them back onto reservations. The plan involved three separate columns of soldiers moving toward the Native American encampment:

1. General George Crook’s force from the south.

2. Colonel John Gibbon’s force from the west.

3. General Alfred Terry’s force, which included Custer’s 7th Cavalry, from the east.

The goal was to trap and overwhelm the Native American forces through a coordinated attack. However, the plan was flawed from the beginning, as the three columns failed to effectively communicate with each other.

On June 17, 1876, General Crook’s column was ambushed and defeated by a combined force of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors in the Battle of the Rosebud, forcing Crook to retreat. This victory emboldened the Native warriors and further strengthened their resolve to resist U.S. forces.

By late June, General Terry’s column, including Custer’s 7th Cavalry, moved toward the Little Bighorn River. Unaware of the size of the Native encampment, Custer believed that the enemy force was smaller than it actually was and that an immediate attack would prevent their escape.

The Battle: Custer’s Last Stand

On the morning of June 25, 1876, Custer’s scouts spotted a massive Native American encampment along the Little Bighorn River. Rather than waiting for reinforcements from Terry and Gibbon, Custer decided to attack immediately, fearing that the warriors might flee if given time to prepare.

Custer divided his force of 700 men into three separate battalions:

1. Captain Frederick Benteen’s battalion was sent to scout the south.

2. Major Marcus Reno’s battalion was ordered to attack the village from the south.

3. Custer’s own battalion planned to strike from the north.

Reno’s Attack and Retreat

Reno and his men crossed the river and attacked the southern edge of the Native encampment. However, they were quickly overwhelmed by a massive counterattack from Lakota and Cheyenne warriors, who outnumbered them significantly. Realizing that his position was untenable, Reno ordered his men to retreat to a nearby ridge, suffering heavy casualties along the way.

Custer’s Fatal Mistake

Meanwhile, Custer led his battalion further north, intending to attack the village from an elevated position. However, instead of catching the Native forces off guard, he walked into an ambush. An estimated 1,500 to 2,000 warriors, led by Crazy Horse, Gall, and Two Moons, charged Custer’s position.

Custer’s men fought desperately but were outnumbered nearly 5 to 1. The battle turned into a complete massacre, as Native warriors swarmed the outnumbered and isolated cavalrymen. Within an hour, Custer and all 210 of his men were killed, marking one of the most decisive Native American victories in history.

Aftermath: The Immediate and Long-Term Consequences

The immediate aftermath of the battle was a mix of celebration and tragedy for the Native American tribes. They had won their most significant military victory against the U.S. Army, demonstrating their strength and ability to defend their lands. However, they knew that the battle’s outcome would provoke the full force of the U.S. military in retaliation.

U.S. Public Reaction and Retaliation

When news of Custer’s defeat reached the United States, the public was shocked and outraged. Many Americans viewed the battle as a humiliating disaster, and Custer was quickly immortalized as a heroic martyr, despite his reckless decision-making.

The U.S. government responded by launching a full-scale military campaign against the Sioux and Cheyenne. In the following months, more troops were sent west, and Native American villages were relentlessly pursued and attacked. 

The Life of General George Armstrong Custer: From Birth to the Last Stand

A Boy with Big Dreams (1839–1857)

On December 5, 1839, in the small town of New Rumley, Ohio, George Armstrong Custer was born to Emanuel and Maria Custer. He grew up in a large, hardworking family, where he quickly developed a reputation as a mischievous yet ambitious boy. Young George was known for his charm, confidence, and adventurous spirit—traits that would shape his future in ways he could not yet imagine.

Even as a child, Custer had a deep fascination with military life. He played war games with his siblings and admired stories of heroic soldiers. However, his schooling was inconsistent, and he struggled with discipline. He was far from the ideal student, often preferring outdoor adventures to books, yet his charisma made him well-liked among his peers.

At 16 years old, he became a schoolteacher in Ohio, but teaching was not his calling. His heart longed for something greater—something exciting, dangerous, and glorious. In 1857, Custer received an opportunity that would change his life forever: he was admitted to the United States Military Academy at West Point.

West Point: A Troubled Cadet (1857–1861)

Custer arrived at West Point with big dreams, but military discipline did not come naturally to him. He was far more interested in pranks and socializing than studying or following strict rules. Over the course of his time at the academy, he amassed an astonishing 726 demerits, nearly getting expelled multiple times.

Despite his troublemaking ways, Custer had an undeniable charisma that made him popular among his classmates. However, his academic performance was poor, and he barely graduated at the bottom of his class—34th out of 34—in 1861.

It seemed that Custer’s military career was off to a rocky start. But fate had other plans for him. Just as he was leaving West Point, the American Civil War erupted. The country was at war, and the Union Army desperately needed officers. Custer, despite his unimpressive academic record, was about to receive his first real chance to prove himself.

The Civil War: The Boy General Rises (1861–1865)

Custer’s military career took off with unexpected speed. Thanks to his boldness and ability to seize opportunities, he quickly rose through the ranks. By 1862, he was serving under General George B. McClellan, the commander of the Army of the Potomac.

His first major break came during the Peninsula Campaign (1862), where he impressed his superiors with his bravery and confidence. His fearlessness on the battlefield earned him recognition, and by 1863, at the Battle of Gettysburg, he was leading cavalry units in some of the fiercest fighting of the war.

At just 23 years old, Custer was promoted to Brigadier General, making him one of the youngest generals in the Union Army. His flashy appearance—golden hair flowing, a custom-made uniform with a red scarf, and an eagerness for battle—made him a well-known and controversial figure.

Custer’s tactics were aggressive, sometimes reckless, but undeniably effective. He played a crucial role in several Union victories, including:

• The Battle of Gettysburg (1863), where his cavalry helped repel Confederate attacks.

• The Shenandoah Valley Campaign (1864), where he pursued and defeated enemy cavalry forces.

• The Appomattox Campaign (1865), where he played a key role in forcing the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee.

When the Civil War ended in April 1865, Custer was a national hero. He had gained a reputation as a fearless, dashing cavalry commander, and his exploits had cemented his place in history. But war had become his identity. As the battlefield quieted and peace settled over the nation, Custer found himself searching for a new fight.

The Indian Wars: A New Battlefield (1866–1876)

After the Civil War, Custer’s love for combat and adventure led him westward, where the U.S. government was engaged in a brutal struggle against Native American tribes. The West was seen as a vast, untamed frontier, and the U.S. Army was tasked with securing lands for settlers and railroads.

Custer was assigned to the 7th Cavalry Regiment, where he quickly became one of the most well-known Indian fighters of his time. His first major campaign was against the Cheyenne in 1867, but the expedition ended in failure. Custer was even court-martialed and suspended for a year due to abandoning his post to visit his wife, Libbie Custer. However, he was reinstated in 1868 and resumed his military career.

The Washita Massacre (1868)

Custer’s most infamous campaign in the Indian Wars came in 1868 at the Battle of Washita River, where he led a surprise attack on a Cheyenne village in present-day Oklahoma. His cavalry killed over 100 Cheyenne men, women, and children and destroyed their winter supplies. This attack was seen as a brutal but effective tactic in the U.S. government's push to force Native Americans onto reservations.

Throughout the 1870s, Custer continued to fight in the Plains Wars, becoming a controversial figure—seen as a hero by some and a ruthless enemy by others. However, his most famous and final battle was yet to come.

The Battle of the Little Bighorn: Custer’s Last Stand (1876)

By 1876, tensions between the U.S. government and the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne were at a boiling point. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills had led to a massive influx of settlers, violating previous treaties with the Lakota. As Native American leaders like Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse resisted, the U.S. Army was sent to force them onto reservations.

Custer and the 7th Cavalry were part of a larger military campaign tasked with confronting Native forces in Montana Territory. On June 25, 1876, Custer’s scouts reported a large encampment of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors near the Little Bighorn River. Ignoring warnings that he was outnumbered, Custer decided to attack immediately, believing a swift strike would catch the Native forces by surprise.

However, Custer had severely underestimated the size and strength of his enemy. He divided his 600 men into smaller groups, weakening his overall force. As he led about 210 soldiers into battle, they were met by a massive force of over 2,000 Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors, led by Crazy Horse, Gall, and Two Moon.

What followed was a complete massacre. Custer and his men were surrounded, outnumbered, and overwhelmed. Within an hour, every soldier in his immediate command, including Custer himself, was killed. His body was later found on a hill, stripped, mutilated, and surrounded by his fallen men.

The Battle of Slim Buttes (1876): Origins, Battle, and Aftermath

Origins of the Battle: Retaliation After Little Bighorn

The Battle of Slim Buttes, fought on September 9–10, 1876, was one of the first U.S. military victories following the shocking defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876. It was part of the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877, a series of conflicts between the United States and the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and their allies, as the U.S. sought to force Native American tribes onto reservations and seize the Black Hills.

After the humiliating defeat at Little Bighorn—where Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and his 7th Cavalry were annihilated by a massive force of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors—the U.S. government launched a relentless military campaign to crush Native American resistance. This effort, often called the Great Sioux War Counteroffensive, involved sending thousands of troops into the field to hunt down the remaining free-roaming Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho bands.

By late summer 1876, U.S. forces, under the command of General George Crook, pursued Native American warriors who had scattered into smaller groups after Little Bighorn. Crook’s "Horsemeat March", a grueling expedition with limited supplies, had left his troops starving and exhausted. When scouts reported the location of a small Lakota village in the Slim Buttes region (present-day South Dakota), Crook saw an opportunity to attack a weakened enemy force and gain a much-needed victory.

The Battle: A Dawn Attack on a Lakota Village

Discovery of the Village

On September 8, 1876, Crook’s troops, exhausted and desperately in need of supplies, were informed by their Crow and Shoshone scouts of a Lakota encampment led by Chief American Horse in the Slim Buttes region. The encampment, consisting of 37 lodges, was home to warriors, women, children, and elders. More importantly, it contained a large herd of horses and valuable supplies from recent raids.

Crook ordered Captain Anson Mills, leading a force of 150 cavalrymen from the 3rd U.S. Cavalry, to launch a surprise dawn attack on the village before the Lakota could escape.

The Attack Begins (September 9, 1876)

At dawn on September 9, Mills’ cavalry descended upon the village, catching the inhabitants off guard. The soldiers opened fire, shooting into the lodges as Lakota warriors scrambled to defend themselves. Some warriors and families attempted to flee, while others barricaded themselves inside their lodges and returned fire.

The battle was fierce and chaotic. Lakota warriors, though vastly outnumbered, fought tenaciously to protect their people. Chief American Horse and a group of defenders took cover inside a ravine, exchanging gunfire with U.S. troops throughout the morning.

The Siege of American Horse’s Lodge

Realizing they were trapped, American Horse, along with several warriors, women, and children, fortified themselves inside a defensive position in a ravine. The U.S. soldiers surrounded them and began a prolonged siege, firing relentlessly into their hiding place. American Horse was severely wounded, but he continued to fight until his people were completely surrounded.

By midday, American Horse, gravely injured, surrendered to the U.S. troops. He emerged from the ravine, reportedly bleeding from a gunshot wound to the abdomen. He was taken prisoner, but despite receiving medical attention, he died later that day.

Lakota Counterattack and Crook’s Reinforcements

As the battle unfolded, Lakota warriors from nearby encampments, including those under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, learned of the attack and rushed to Slim Buttes to assist their besieged comrades.

By the evening of September 9, Crook’s main force of over 1,000 troops arrived to reinforce Mills’ cavalry. The reinforcements helped repel Lakota counterattacks, forcing the warriors to withdraw. However, the Lakota were able to harass Crook’s forces throughout the night, making it difficult for them to secure the battlefield.

By September 10, the fighting had largely ended. Crook’s troops had captured the village, confiscated supplies, and driven away most of the Lakota warriors. Although a small engagement compared to Little Bighorn, the Battle of Slim Buttes was the first major U.S. victory of the war, boosting morale after months of setbacks.

The Aftermath: Consequences of the Battle

Death of Chief American Horse

The death of American Horse, a respected Lakota leader, was a significant loss for his people. He had been a major advocate for resisting U.S. encroachment while also negotiating for peace when possible. His passing further hardened Native resistance against the U.S. government.

Psychological and Strategic Impact

The U.S. military celebrated the battle as a turning point, even though it was a relatively small-scale engagement. The ability of Crook’s forces to surprise and defeat a Lakota encampment signaled that Native groups were no longer untouchable, as they had seemed after Little Bighorn.

More importantly, the battle gave Crook’s starving forces access to desperately needed food and supplies, including dried buffalo meat and stolen U.S. Army rations that the Lakota had obtained from earlier raids.

Retaliation by the U.S. Military

Following Slim Buttes, U.S. forces intensified their pursuit of Native American bands across the northern plains. The battle proved that the Lakota and Cheyenne were vulnerable when divided into smaller groups, leading to more aggressive U.S. military tactics.

In the months following Slim Buttes:

• Sitting Bull and his followers fled north into Canada, seeking refuge.

• Crazy Horse continued fighting but eventually surrendered in May 1877.

• The Great Sioux War ended in 1877, with the Lakota, Cheyenne, and their allies forced onto reservations.

The Battle of Wolf Mountain (1877): Origins, Battle, and Aftermath

Origins of the Battle: The Final Phase of the Great Sioux War

The Battle of Wolf Mountain, fought on January 8, 1877, was one of the final battles of the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877. It marked the end of the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne’s large-scale resistance against the U.S. military, following a year of relentless pursuit after the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876.

The battle took place during a harsh Montana winter, when the U.S. Army, under General Nelson A. Miles, engaged a force of Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne warriors led by Crazy Horse. By this time, Native American resistance had been significantly weakened due to starvation, exhaustion, and continuous military pressure from the U.S. government.

The Aftermath of Little Bighorn and the U.S. Military Campaign

The origins of the Battle of Wolf Mountain can be traced directly to the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876, when a coalition of Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors annihilated Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer’s 7th Cavalry. The defeat sent shockwaves through the U.S. government and led to an all-out military offensive against the Native American tribes of the northern Great Plains.

Determined to crush the remaining free-roaming Native bands, Generals William Tecumseh Sherman, Philip Sheridan, and Alfred Terry coordinated a massive campaign to drive the Lakota and Cheyenne onto reservations. They adopted a scorched-earth strategy, burning villages, killing buffalo, and cutting off Native American access to food and supplies.

Throughout the latter half of 1876, U.S. forces under Generals George Crook and Nelson Miles relentlessly pursued groups of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors across Montana and Wyoming, fighting battles at Slim Buttes, Dull Knife, and Crazy Woman Creek.

By December 1876, many Lakota and Cheyenne bands, suffering from the brutal winter conditions and lack of food, began surrendering to U.S. authorities. However, a determined faction led by Crazy Horse and Two Moon refused to give in, continuing to fight despite dwindling resources.

The Battle of Wolf Mountain: January 8, 1877

General Miles' Pursuit of Crazy Horse

By early January 1877, General Nelson A. Miles, commanding the 5th Infantry Regiment, had tracked Crazy Horse and his warriors to a winter encampment along the Tongue River in southern Montana, near Wolf Mountain. The harsh winter and lack of food had weakened the Native forces, but they were still determined to resist U.S. expansion.

Miles, aware of their deteriorating condition, saw an opportunity to force a decisive engagement. On January 7, his troops camped near Wolf Mountain, preparing for battle the next morning.

The Battle Begins

At dawn on January 8, 1877, Crazy Horse’s warriors launched an aggressive attack on the U.S. camp, hoping to break Miles’ defensive position. Despite being outnumbered, the Native warriors used the snow-covered terrain to their advantage, firing from concealed positions along the ridges.

Miles’ troops, well-disciplined and battle-hardened, quickly formed defensive lines and returned fire. The fight escalated into a fierce long-range gun battle, with both sides taking cover behind trees and hills.

The Weather Turns Against the Lakota and Cheyenne

One of the defining factors of the battle was the harsh winter weather. Temperatures were below freezing, and heavy snowfall made movement difficult for both sides. The U.S. soldiers, equipped with winter gear and better supplies, were able to endure the conditions, while the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors, starving and poorly clothed, struggled to maintain their attack.

After several hours of intense fighting, Miles’ troops began advancing up the ridges, forcing Crazy Horse’s warriors into a gradual retreat. By midday, the Native forces, overwhelmed and suffering from the bitter cold, withdrew into the mountains, effectively ending the battle.

Aftermath of the Battle

A Decisive Blow to Native Resistance

Although the Battle of Wolf Mountain was not a large-scale massacre, it was a decisive turning point in the Great Sioux War. The battle broke the remaining resistance of Crazy Horse’s followers, as the lack of supplies, freezing conditions, and relentless pursuit by the U.S. Army made further fighting impossible.

Over the following months, hundreds of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors surrendered, including prominent leaders such as Two Moon, Little Hawk, and eventually Crazy Horse himself.

Crazy Horse’s Surrender and Death

On May 6, 1877, after realizing that further resistance was futile, Crazy Horse led his remaining followers to surrender at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. He and his warriors had endured months of starvation and relentless military pressure, forcing them to accept reservation life.

However, Crazy Horse’s surrender did not mark the end of his story. In September 1877, just months after his surrender, he was stabbed to death by a U.S. soldier under controversial circumstances. His death marked the final chapter of large-scale Lakota resistance.

The End of the Great Sioux War

Following the Battle of Wolf Mountain and the surrender of Crazy Horse, the Great Sioux War effectively ended. By the end of 1877, nearly all Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors had been forced onto reservations.

The war’s aftermath saw the seizure of the Black Hills, which had been the primary point of conflict. Despite the U.S. government's violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the Lakota were never allowed to return to the Black Hills, and the land remains in dispute to this day.

The Battle of Wolf Mountain was one of the final engagements of the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877, symbolizing the end of organized Native American resistance in the Northern Plains. Though it was a relatively small battle, it had major consequences, leading directly to the surrender of Crazy Horse and his followers and ensuring U.S. dominance over the region.

The Nez Perce War and the Battle of the Big Hole (1877)

Origins of the Nez Perce War: A Broken Treaty and Forced Relocation

The Nez Perce War of 1877 was one of the final major conflicts between Native American tribes and the U.S. government in the era of westward expansion. Unlike many other conflicts of the Indian Wars, the Nez Perce War was not started by a desire to resist U.S. expansion through armed conflict but rather as a desperate attempt by the Nez Perce people to flee and find peace elsewhere. The war resulted in a series of battles and skirmishes, culminating in the Battle of the Big Hole on August 9–10, 1877, in Montana Territory.

The Nez Perce had long been one of the more cooperative Native American tribes in the Pacific Northwest. They had maintained relatively peaceful relations with white settlers and had even allied with the U.S. during earlier conflicts with other tribes. However, tensions between the Nez Perce and the U.S. government escalated due to broken treaties and land disputes.

The Treaty of 1855 and the Treaty of 1863

In 1855, the U.S. government negotiated a treaty with the Nez Perce, which allowed them to retain much of their traditional homeland across parts of present-day Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. However, after gold was discovered on Nez Perce lands in the 1860s, settlers poured into the region, violating the treaty’s terms.

To accommodate white miners and settlers, the U.S. government imposed a new treaty in 1863, reducing the Nez Perce reservation to a small fraction of its original size. Many Nez Perce leaders reluctantly accepted this treaty, but others, including Chief Joseph (Hinmatóowyalahtq’it), Looking Glass, White Bird, and others, refused to sign it, believing that giving up their ancestral lands was unacceptable. This group became known as the "non-treaty Nez Perce."

For more than a decade, the non-treaty Nez Perce continued living on their traditional lands, refusing to move to the smaller reservation in Idaho. By 1877, the U.S. government issued an ultimatum: the Nez Perce had 30 days to relocate to the reservation or be forcibly removed. Facing impossible odds, Chief Joseph and other leaders reluctantly agreed to leave their homeland and move onto the reservation.

The Spark That Led to War

As the Nez Perce prepared to leave, a group of young warriors, enraged by past injustices, raided white settlements and killed several settlers. This event provided the U.S. Army with justification to attack the Nez Perce, regardless of Chief Joseph’s peaceful intentions.

Realizing that war was now inevitable, Chief Joseph and his followers made a bold decision: they would flee to Canada rather than surrender to U.S. forces. Thus began a remarkable 1,170-mile journey across the rugged terrain of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, fighting battles along the way in an effort to reach sanctuary in Canada.

The Battle of the Big Hole: August 9–10, 1877

The Battle of the Big Hole was one of the largest and most brutal encounters of the Nez Perce War. The Nez Perce, exhausted from weeks of evading the U.S. Army, had stopped to rest in a valley near the Big Hole River in western Montana. Thinking they were far ahead of the pursuing U.S. troops, they set up camp, unaware that the Army was closing in on them.

The U.S. Attack at Dawn

Colonel John Gibbon, leading about 200 U.S. soldiers and civilian volunteers, had been tracking the Nez Perce. On the morning of August 9, 1877, Gibbon ordered his troops to launch a surprise attack on the sleeping Nez Perce encampment. At dawn, the soldiers rushed into the village, opening fire on women, children, and elderly Nez Perce as they fled in terror. Many were shot before they had a chance to escape.

Though caught off guard, the Nez Perce warriors quickly regrouped and launched a fierce counterattack. Led by Chief Looking Glass and White Bird, the warriors fought back against the soldiers, engaging in intense close-quarters combat.

The Battle Turns: Nez Perce Counterattack

The U.S. troops, who had expected an easy victory, soon found themselves outgunned and surrounded. The Nez Perce sharpshooters, using superior long-range rifles, pinned down Gibbon’s soldiers on a nearby hill, preventing them from advancing.

The battle raged throughout the day, with heavy casualties on both sides. The Nez Perce warriors, fighting to protect their families, methodically picked off soldiers while others set fire to the tall grass, creating smoke cover.

Gibbon’s Forces in Crisis

By the afternoon of August 10, the battle had turned into a siege, with the U.S. soldiers trapped on the hill and running low on ammunition. If not for the arrival of reinforcements under General Oliver Otis Howard, Gibbon’s force might have been completely wiped out.

Realizing they could not afford to hold their position any longer, the Nez Perce gathered their survivors and retreated into the mountains. Despite suffering heavy losses, they had once again outmaneuvered the U.S. military and continued their flight toward Canada.

The Aftermath of the Battle

Casualties and Losses

The Battle of the Big Hole was costly for both sides. The Nez Perce suffered between 70 and 90 deaths, including many women and children. The U.S. Army lost 29 soldiers killed and 40 wounded, one of the highest casualty rates of the war.

Although the battle was technically a U.S. victory, it was a hollow one, as the Nez Perce once again escaped, continuing their incredible journey toward freedom.

The Final Pursuit and Chief Joseph’s Surrender

For the next two months, the Nez Perce traveled over 800 miles, evading the Army across the rugged terrain of Yellowstone and Montana. However, their numbers dwindled due to hunger, exhaustion, and continuous skirmishes with U.S. troops.

By October 5, 1877, just 40 miles from the Canadian border, the Nez Perce were surrounded by U.S. forces at Bear Paw Mountain. With no options left, Chief Joseph surrendered, delivering his famous speech:

"From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever."

The Fate of the Nez Perce

Although Chief Joseph and his people had surrendered, the U.S. government broke its promise to let them return to their homeland. Instead, the Nez Perce were forcibly relocated to reservations in Kansas and later Oklahoma, where many died from disease and starvation.

Chief Joseph spent the rest of his life pleading for his people’s right to return home, but he never saw his homeland again. He died in 1904, reportedly of a broken heart.

The Dawes Act of 1887: Origins, Provisions, and Consequences

Origins of the Dawes Act: The Push for Assimilation

The Dawes Act of 1887, officially known as the General Allotment Act, was a federal law passed by the United States Congress with the goal of assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society. The act sought to break up tribal lands, distribute individual plots to Native Americans, and encourage private land ownership, which was seen as a way to "civilize" indigenous people. However, instead of bringing prosperity, the Dawes Act resulted in the loss of millions of acres of Native American land, further weakening indigenous sovereignty and cultural identity.

The origins of the Dawes Act can be traced back to the U.S. government’s broader policies of forced assimilation and westward expansion. Since the early 19th century, the U.S. had pursued a policy of relocating Native American tribes to reservations, but by the late 1800s, many policymakers and reformers believed that reservations were obstacles to Native American progress. Instead, they argued that Native Americans should adopt American customs, farming practices, and economic systems to become self-sufficient citizens.

Influence of the Indian Reform Movement

The Dawes Act was heavily influenced by white reformers, missionaries, and politicians who believed they were acting in the best interest of Native Americans. Many were part of the Indian Reform Movement, which advocated for assimilation rather than outright removal or extermination. Reformers saw communal land ownership as a barrier to Native American economic success and believed that individual land ownership would force Native Americans to adopt Western lifestyles.

One of the most vocal proponents of assimilation was Senator Henry Dawes of Massachusetts, after whom the act was named. Dawes and other reformers viewed land allotment as a means of "uplifting" Native Americans by integrating them into white society. However, many Native leaders opposed the act, recognizing that it was another attempt to strip them of their land, culture, and self-determination.

Key Provisions of the Dawes Act

The Dawes Act was signed into law on February 8, 1887, by President Grover Cleveland. Its provisions included:

1. Breaking Up Tribal Land: Communal tribal lands were to be divided into individual allotments for Native American families and individuals.

2. Land Distribution: Each Native American head of household was granted 160 acres, while single adults received 80 acres, and minors were given 40 acres.

3. U.S. Citizenship: Native Americans who accepted the allotments and adopted a "civilized" lifestyle were granted U.S. citizenship.

4. Sale of "Surplus" Land: After allotments were made, the remaining tribal land was declared "surplus" and opened for sale to white settlers.

5. Trust Period: The U.S. government would hold the land in trust for 25 years, after which the Native allottees would receive full ownership.

At first glance, the act appeared to offer landownership and citizenship to Native Americans, but in reality, it was a calculated effort to break up Native American communities and dispossess them of their lands.

The Devastating Consequences of the Dawes Act

The Dawes Act had disastrous effects on Native American communities. Instead of promoting economic independence, it resulted in the loss of tribal lands, cultural destruction, and further marginalization of indigenous peoples.

Loss of Land and Tribal Sovereignty

One of the most damaging outcomes of the Dawes Act was the massive loss of Native American land. Before the act, Native American tribes controlled about 138 million acres of land. By 1934, this number had been reduced to 48 million acres, meaning that nearly 90 million acres were lost—most of it sold to white settlers or taken by the government.

Many Native Americans were tricked, pressured, or forced into selling their allotments before they could claim full ownership. Additionally, many Native Americans were not familiar with the concept of private land ownership and often lost their land due to taxes, legal loopholes, or outright fraud.

Exploitation and White Settlement

The surplus land provision allowed millions of acres of Native land to be sold to non-Native settlers, railroad companies, and developers. This accelerated the loss of indigenous land and enabled more white expansion into Native territories. In many cases, the best and most fertile lands were taken by settlers, while Native Americans were left with infertile, isolated, or undesirable lands.

Erosion of Native Culture and Identity

The Dawes Act was designed not only to eliminate communal landholding but also to force Native Americans to assimilate into white American culture. Many Native traditions were based on collective land ownership, kinship, and tribal governance, which the act directly undermined.

Additionally, Native children were increasingly forced into government-run boarding schools, where they were forbidden from speaking their languages, practicing their customs, or following their spiritual traditions. This era marked a significant cultural suppression of indigenous peoples, leading to a generational loss of language, identity, and historical knowledge.

Failure to Improve Native American Lives

Despite its intentions to "help" Native Americans, the Dawes Act failed to provide economic stability. Many Native allottees lacked the tools, knowledge, or financial resources to farm the land effectively, and federal support was limited or nonexistent.

Additionally, the process of allotment was often slow and corrupt, leaving many Native Americans without land, support, or legal protection. By the early 20th century, it was clear that the policy had only deepened Native American poverty and land loss.

Repeal and Long-Term Effects

The Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

Recognizing the failure of the Dawes Act, the U.S. government eventually reversed the policy under the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934. Signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the IRA:

• Ended the allotment process.

• Restored some tribal lands and allowed Native nations to reorganize their governments.

• Encouraged tribal self-governance rather than forced assimilation.

While the IRA helped stop further land loss, it could not undo the decades of damage caused by the Dawes Act. Many tribes had already lost the vast majority of their lands, and economic recovery was slow and uneven.

The Battle of Wounded Knee (1890): Origins, Battle, and Aftermath

Origins of the Battle: The Ghost Dance and Growing Tensions

The Battle of Wounded Knee, often referred to as the Wounded Knee Massacre, occurred on December 29, 1890, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. It was the final major armed conflict between the Lakota Sioux and the U.S. Army, marking the tragic end of the Indian Wars. The massacre was fueled by long-standing tensions between the U.S. government and Native American tribes, particularly in response to the U.S. government’s efforts to suppress indigenous culture, force Native peoples onto reservations, and eliminate any form of resistance.

One of the key causes of the battle was the rise of the Ghost Dance movement, a religious movement that gained popularity among many Native American tribes, especially the Lakota Sioux, in the late 1880s. The movement was founded by Wovoka, a Paiute prophet, who had a vision that if Native Americans followed the Ghost Dance ritual—a ceremonial dance and prayer—they would be reunited with their ancestors, their lands would be restored, and white settlers would disappear.

For the Lakota Sioux, who had suffered years of starvation, broken treaties, and military oppression, the Ghost Dance became a symbol of hope and resistance. Many Lakota began wearing "Ghost Shirts," which they believed would protect them from bullets. However, U.S. officials viewed the movement as a dangerous rebellion that could lead to an armed uprising. As the Ghost Dance spread across Lakota reservations, white settlers panicked, urging the federal government to take action.

The Killing of Sitting Bull and the Attempt to Disarm the Lakota

To suppress the Ghost Dance movement, the U.S. government ordered the arrest of Sitting Bull, the famous Lakota leader who had played a key role in the defeat of Custer at the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876). On December 15, 1890, Indian police, acting under government orders, attempted to arrest Sitting Bull at the Standing Rock Reservation in North Dakota. A struggle broke out, and Sitting Bull was shot and killed.

His death only increased tensions, leading many Lakota to flee their reservations and seek protection under Chief Spotted Elk (Big Foot), a respected Miniconjou Lakota leader. Big Foot and his band headed south toward Pine Ridge Reservation, hoping to find safety and avoid conflict with the U.S. Army. However, the military, fearing an uprising, saw Big Foot’s movement as a threat and sent the 7th Cavalry—Custer’s former regiment—to intercept them.

The Confrontation at Wounded Knee

On December 28, 1890, the 7th Cavalry, led by Colonel James W. Forsyth, caught up with Big Foot’s band near Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. By this time, Big Foot was sick with pneumonia and had no intention of fighting. The Lakota, numbering around 350 people, were exhausted and cold and made no effort to resist the cavalry's orders.

The following morning, on December 29, the soldiers ordered the Lakota to surrender their weapons. Most complied, but tensions rose when a deaf Lakota warrior, Black Coyote, refused to give up his rifle, claiming that he had paid a lot for it and didn’t want to part with it. As soldiers tried to forcibly take the weapon, it accidentally discharged, creating chaos.

The Massacre Begins

At the sound of the gunshot, the soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the Lakota men, women, and children. Despite being largely unarmed and defenseless, the Lakota were slaughtered as they tried to flee. Soldiers used Hotchkiss guns, rapid-fire artillery capable of mowing down large groups, to fire upon fleeing women and children.

Some Lakota warriors managed to grab rifles and fought back, but they were quickly overwhelmed by the superior firepower of the U.S. troops. Within minutes, hundreds of Lakota were lying dead or wounded in the snow.

By the time the shooting stopped, over 250 Lakota lay dead—including Big Foot, women, children, and elderly tribal members. Some reports estimate that the number of Lakota casualties was as high as 300, while only 25 U.S. soldiers were killed, most likely due to friendly fire.

Aftermath: The End of Armed Native Resistance

The Immediate Response

In the days following the massacre, the bodies of the slain Lakota were left exposed in the freezing cold for several days before being buried in a mass grave. Reports from survivors and journalists who visited the site described horrific scenes of unarmed women and children who had been gunned down while trying to escape.

The Symbolic End of the Indian Wars

The Battle of Wounded Knee is widely considered the symbolic end of the Indian Wars, which had raged across the Great Plains for nearly 50 years. After Wounded Knee, Native American resistance was effectively crushed, and most tribes were forcibly confined to reservations, where they faced poverty, disease, and government suppression of their traditions.

Long-Term Consequences for Native Americans

The massacre at Wounded Knee had devastating long-term consequences for the Lakota and other Native American tribes.

• The U.S. government intensified efforts to assimilate Native Americans, banning many of their cultural and religious practices.

• Native children were taken from their families and placed in government-run boarding schools, where they were forced to abandon their language and traditions.

• The tragedy of Wounded Knee became a symbol of broken treaties, oppression, and the loss of Native sovereignty.

Wounded Knee and the 20th-Century Native Rights Movement

Although Wounded Knee faded from mainstream history for decades, it reemerged as a powerful symbol of Native American resistance during the 20th-century Native American rights movement.

In 1973, members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) staged a 71-day occupation of Wounded Knee, demanding the U.S. government honor past treaties and address injustices against Native Americans. The occupation brought national attention to Native rights issues, reinforcing Wounded Knee’s place in history as a site of resistance and struggle.

Life Lessons and Thought Processes from the Indian Wars (1860s–1890s)

The Indian Wars (1860s–1890s) were a defining period in American history, marked by relentless conflicts between Native American tribes and the U.S. government. These wars were fought over land, sovereignty, cultural survival, and the expansion of the United States westward. By studying this period, we can extract critical life lessons and understand important thought processes that shape both history and modern society.

Lesson #1: The Importance of Understanding Different Perspectives

One of the greatest lessons from the Indian Wars is the importance of seeing history from multiple viewpoints. For decades, the wars were portrayed primarily through the lens of U.S. military victories and western expansion. However, understanding Native American perspectives provides a deeper and more accurate view of what truly happened.

Thought Process: Seek to Understand Before Judging

• Many Native American tribes were not fighting for conquest, but for their very survival.

• The U.S. government justified its actions through treaties, diplomacy, and military campaigns, but many of these were dishonest and exploitative.

• Seeing history from both perspectives teaches us to listen to different viewpoints before forming conclusions.

Modern Application:

• In today’s world, conflicts often arise from miscommunication and a lack of cultural understanding.

• Whether in politics, business, or personal life, it is crucial to recognize others' experiences and perspectives before making decisions.

Lesson #2: The Consequences of Broken Promises and Dishonesty

Throughout the Indian Wars, the U.S. government repeatedly broke treaties and made false promises to Native American tribes. Agreements such as the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), which granted the Lakota control over the Black Hills, were violated when gold was discovered in the region. This betrayal led to wars, massacres, and lasting resentment.

Thought Process: Integrity and Trust Are Everything

• Breaking trust creates long-term conflicts that can last for generations.

• Words and actions must align—promises mean nothing without follow-through.

• Short-term gains from dishonesty often lead to long-term losses and instability.

Modern Application:

• In leadership, business, and personal relationships, honesty and trustworthiness are key to long-term success.

• If agreements are not honored, conflict and instability will follow—just as seen in the Indian Wars.

Lesson #3: The Dangers of Underestimating Your Opponent

One of the most famous moments of the Indian Wars was Custer’s Last Stand at the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876). General George Armstrong Custer, confident in his military ability, attacked a massive force of Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors without fully understanding their numbers or strength. The result was a catastrophic defeat.

Thought Process: Never Underestimate Your Challenges

• Arrogance and overconfidence can lead to devastating failure.

• Every opponent—whether a competitor in business, an adversary in politics, or a personal challenge—must be approached with respect and careful analysis.

• Even the most powerful forces can be humbled by unexpected resistance.

Modern Application:

• In business, underestimating a competitor can result in lost market share.

• In personal growth, assuming a challenge will be easy can lead to failure.

• Always assess risks, prepare for setbacks, and respect every challenge before taking action.

Lesson #4: The Power of Adaptability and Resilience

Despite suffering defeats, Native American leaders like Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull, and Geronimo adapted to changing conditions, using guerrilla warfare, knowledge of terrain, and strategic alliances to resist U.S. forces. Even as their resources dwindled, their ability to adapt and persist allowed them to prolong their resistance far longer than expected.

Thought Process: Those Who Adapt, Survive

• Rigid thinking leads to failure, while adaptability creates opportunities for survival.

• Even when facing overwhelming odds, resilience and strategic adjustments can turn the tide.

• Challenges and hardships should be viewed as opportunities to learn and grow.

Modern Application:

• In a rapidly changing world, businesses that fail to adapt to new technology and trends collapse.

• On a personal level, the ability to pivot in response to setbacks leads to long-term success.

• Learning from past mistakes—just as Native leaders did—ensures stronger strategies for future challenges.